Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

Learning Objectives
Understand the basic operation of CROP scintillation
counters and photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) and their
use in measuring cosmic ray air showers
Understand how light is generated in a scintillator
Understand how light is transmitted to a PMT
Understand how a PMT generates an electric signal
Be able to hook up a scintillation counter to its high
voltage and an oscilloscope for viewing signals
Be able to identify light leaks in a scintillation counter
Be able to observe scintillation counter signals using
an oscilloscope and identify cosmic ray muons
Be able to discuss scintillation counter performance
in terms of gain, efficiency and attenuation length

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

Outline
Introduction
Light Generation in Scintillators
Light Collection
Optical Interfaces and Connections
Photodetectors and photomultiplier tubes
Performance and Exercises
References

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

Introduction
Scintillation counters are multi-purpose particle detectors
used in many experimental physics applications
Used for charged particle detection (positive or negative),
but also neutral particles (photons, neutrons),
although light-generation mechanisms are different for
charged and neutral particles
Basic sequence -- light generation by particle passing
through scintillator material, light collection,
photodetector turns light into electric signal
Scintillation Counter Properties
Fast time response -- light generated almost immediately
after particle passes through scintillator, photodetectors
give fast electric signal
Can count number of particles using pulse height.
The larger the signal size, the greater the number of
particles
Position information
Based on size of active scintillator material

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

Basic principles of operation

Passage of
charged particle
generates light
in scintillator

Charged particle

Light guide
transmits light
to photodetector

Photomultiplier tube (PM or PMT)

generates electric signal

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

Introduction
Examples from High Energy Physics experiments
at particle accelerators
Hodoscope -- an array of several counters covering
a large area
Veto counters -- for particles you dont want to
measure
Calorimetry -- measuring a particles total energy
Triggering -- a fast signal which indicates an
interesting event to record
Examples from cosmic ray experiments
CASA
KASCADE

Scintillation counters in High-Energy

Physics Experiments
Fermilab, Batavia, Illinois
Protons

Anti-protons

CERN, Geneva, Switzerland

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

Scintillation counter hodoscope

Photomultiplier
tube
Scintillator wedge
Foil wrapping

Counters arranged
as pizza slices

Chicago Air Shower Array (CASA)

Dugway Proving Grounds, Utah

University of Chicago and University of Utah collaboration

to study extended cosmic ray air showers
1089 boxes in a rectangular grid, 15 meter spacing, each with
4 scintillator planes and 4 photomultplier tubes
1 low voltage and 1 high voltage supply
1 electronics card for data triggering and data acquisition
CASA collected data in the 1990s and is now complete
CROP will use retired scintillation counters recovered
from CASA

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

Contents of a CASA detector station

Weatherproof box top

Electronics card

4 scintillators and PMTs

Box bottom

The KASCADE experiment

in Karlsruhe, Germany
KASCADE = KArlsruhe Shower Core and Array DEtector

252 detector stations

Rectangular grid with 13 m spacing
Array of 200 x 200 m2

The KASCADE experiment

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

Introduction
Other uses of scintillation counters -- biological research,
medical applications (PET scans)
Use of scintillation counters in CROP
Several counters firing at once indicates extended air
shower -- on one school or inter-school
Pulse heights related to number of particles in shower and
energy of primary cosmic ray
Relative arrival times related to primary cosmic ray
incident direction

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

PET Scans
(Positron Emission Tomography)

3-D image
Scintillating crystal detector
and photomultiplier

Cross
Section

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

2. Light generation in scintillators

Different scintillator materials
Plastic scintillator -- good for large areas
Sodium Iodide (NaI)
Inorganic crystals
BGO (Bi4Ge2O12)
Lead Tungstanate (PbWO4)
Focus on plastic scintillator
Composition
Polystyrene (plexiglass)
Doped with small admixture of a fluor
Fluor is organic macro-molecule like
POPOP: 1,4-Bis-[2-(5-phenyloxazolyl)]-benzene
C24H16N2O2
Light generated by fluorescence process
One of energy loss mechanisms when charged
particles pass through matter
Similar to television screen or computer monitor
Quantum mechanical process
Light (photons) emitted isotropically
Emission spectrum from typical scintillator
Relation to visible light spectrum

Energy absorption and emission diagram

Electrons excited
to higher energy
levels when a
charged particle
passes, absorbing
part of its energy
Electron ground
state
Electrons drop back
to ground state,
emitting fluorescence
or scintillation light

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

Typical plastic scintillator emission spectrum

Wavelength of emitted light

1 nm = 1 nanometer = 1 10-9 meter
For reference, 1 nm = 10 Angstroms,
where 1 Angstrom is approximate size of an atom
Maximum emission at about 425 nm

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

The wavelengths of visible light

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

3. Light Collection
Purpose -- Direct as much generated light as possible to
the photodetector
Need for making counters light tight
Light transmission within scintillator
Reflections from surfaces, total internal reflection
Transmission through surfaces
Critical angle
Importance of smooth polished surfaces
Use of reflective coverings
(foil, white paint, white paper, black paper)
Multiple bounces (many!)
Ray-tracing simulation programs
Attenuation of light in scintillator

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

Light transmission within scintillator

Charged particle
passes through
here

Scintillator
Light
rays

Photomultiplier tubes

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

Reflection and transmission at surfaces

Air

Scintillator material
Light totally internally reflected for incident angle
greater than critical which depends on optical
properties of scintillator and air

Scintillator
Air

Refraction (i.e. transmission) outside scintillator for

incident angle less than critical

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

3. Light Collection
Different light collection schemes
Different types of plastic light guides
Air light guides (KASCADE)
CASA scheme
Not optimal, PMT glued onto surface
Wavelength-shifting side bars
Embedded wavelength-shifting optical fibers
Connected to clear optical fibers
Can transport light over long distance
Other fiber optics applications
Laproscopic surgery
Telecommunications

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

Laproscopic surgery

Optical fibers transmit image to surgeon

Less instrusive technique

Light collection in the KASCADE experiment

Electron and photon detector

Photomultiplier

33 kg of liquid scintillator
Argon-filled space
(better light transmission than air)

Light emitted from scintillator is guided by conical reflecting

surfaces to photomultiplier tube above

Light collection in the KASCADE experiment

Muon detector

Wavelength-shifting bars around

perimeter of planes guide light to
photomultiplier tubes

4 plastic scintillator planes

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

Optical Fibers
Fiber core and cladding optimized to
prevent leakage of light out of the fiber
95% transmission over 1 km
If this were true for ocean water, you could
clearly see ocean bottom
Transmission modes within optical fibers

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

Whats wrong with

this picture?

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

Several scintillators tied together

optically with optical fibers

To photo-detector
Wavelehgth-shifting
optical fiber

Scintillator planes

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

Advantages and limitations of each type of light

read-out scheme
Definition of efficiency of light collection
Number of photons arriving at the photo-detector
Number of photons generated by charged particle
About 10% for light guide attached to side
A few percent for CASA counters

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

4. Optical Interfaces and Connections

Purpose -- transmit light with high efficiency,
sometimes provide mechanical stability of detector
as well (should decouple the two tasks if possible)
Interface between scintillator material and
Light guide
Optical fiber
Wavelength-shifting bar
Interface between light guide or fiber and
photodetector
Commonly used
Optical cements and epoxies
Optical grease
Air gap

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

5. Photodetectors and Photomultiplier Tubes

Purpose -- transform light into electric signal for
further processing of particle information
Examples
Photomultiplier tube (CROP focus)
Photodiode
Charged-coupled device
Avalanche photodiode (APD)
Visible Light Photon Counter (cryogenics)

Photomultiplier tube details

Entrance window
Must be transparent for light wavelengths which
need to enter tube
Common: glass
Fused silicate -- transmits ultraviolet as well

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

Schematic drawing of a photomultiplier tube

(from scintillator)
Photocathode
Photons eject
electrons via
photoelectric effect

Each incident
electron ejects
about 4 new
electrons at each
dynode stage

Multiplied signal
comes out here

Vacuum inside
tube

An applied voltage
difference between
dynodes makes
electrons accelerate
from stage to stage

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

Different types of dynode chain geometries

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

Definition of Photomultiplier Tube Gain

= average number of electrons generated at each dynode
stage
Typically, = 4 , but this depends on dynode material
and the voltage difference between dynodes
n = number of multiplication stages
Photomultiplier tube gain = n
For n = 10 stages and = 4 , gain = 410 = 1 107
This means that one electron emitted from the
photocathode (these are called photoelectrons)
yields 1 107 electrons at the signal output

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

The Photocathode
Incoming photons expel electrons from the metallic
surface of the photocathode via the photoelectric effect.
The effect was discovered by
Heinrich Hertz in 1887 and
explained by Albert Einstein
in 1905.
According to Einstein's theory,
light is composed of discrete
particles of energy, or quanta,
called PHOTONS. When photons with enough energy
strike the photocathode, they liberate electrons that have
a kinetic energy equal to the energy of the photons less
the work function (the energy required to free the
electrons from a particular material).
Einstein received the Nobel Prize for his 1905 paper
explaining the photoelectric effect. What were the other
two famous Einstein papers from 1905?
Theory of special relativity
Explanation of Brownian motion

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

The Photocathode
Photocathode composition
Semiconductor material made of antimony (Sb) and
one or more alkalai metals (Cs, Na, K)
Thin, so ejected electrons can escape
Definition of photocathode quantum efficiency,

Number of photoelectrons released

Number of incident photons () on cathode

Typical photocathode quantum efficiency is 10 - 30%

Photocathode response spectrum
Need for matching scintillator light output spectrum with
photocathode response spectrum

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

Typical photocathode response curve

200 nm

Wavelength of light

1 nm = 1 nanometer = 1 10-9 meter

Note: Quantum efficiency > 20% in range 300 - 475 nm
Peak response for light wavelengths near 400 nm

700 nm

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

The dynode chain

High voltage applied to dynodes creates electric fields
which guide electrons between from stage to stage
Process of secondary emission yields more electrons
at each stage
This is the multiplication in photomultiplier
Process is similar to photoelectric effect, with incident
photon replaced by incident electron
Composition of dynodes
Ag - Mg
Cu - Be
Deposited in thin layer on
Cs - Sb
conducting support
Sensitivity to earths magnetic field
Earths magnetic field is typically 0.5 - 1.0 Gauss
Trajectories of charged particles moving in a magnetic
field will curve, depending on field orientation
Can cause photoelectrons and secondary-emitted
electrons not to reach next stage
First few stages, when there are few electrons,
most vulnerable
Use of magnetic shields
Should extend shield beyond front of tube

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

The phototube base and high voltage supply

Purpose -- provide an electric field between
photocathode and first dynode
successive dynodes
to accelerate electrons from stage to stage
About 100 V voltage difference needed between stages
Chain of resistors forms voltage divider to split up
high voltage into small steps
Capacitors store readily-available charge for electron
multiplication
Typical base draws 1 - 2 milliamperes of current

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

The electric field between successive dynodes

A simplified view

Represents a dynode

- - 100 Volts

- - Electric field between plates

+ + +

+ + +
Represents the next
dynode

An electron (negative charge) released from the negative

plate will be accelerated toward the positive plate

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

Typical phototube base schematic

Output signal
to oscilloscope
Photocathode
Dynodes
Tube body
Ground

High voltage
supply
Positive

Capacitors
(which store
charge) needed
for final stages
when there are
many electrons

Current flows
through resistor
chain for voltage
division

Output signal flows out of tube

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

A simple voltage divider

Greek omega for
resistance unit, Ohms

Current, I
(amperes)
Battery
Vbatt = 9 Volts

+
-

4 R

a
2 R

Voltmeter
here
b

V
R
Vbatt
9 Volts
Current in circuit : I

1.5 Amps
R1 R 2
6
Vacross R 2 I R 2 (1.5 Amps)(2 ) 3 Volts
Ohm' s law : V I R or I

Measured with voltmeter between points (a) and (b)

You have divided the 9 Volt battery: 3 Volts and

6 Volts are now accessible with this circuit.

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

Vacuum inside tube body

Purpose -- minimize collisions of electrons with gas
molecules during transit
Requires strong tube body
Pins for electrical connections pierce through glass
at bottom of tube (leak-tight)
Damage to tube by helium or hydrogen
Small gas molecules can leak into tube, even
through glass

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

Variation of PMT gain with high voltage

Increasing high voltage increases electron transmission
efficiency from stage to stage
Especially important in first 1-2 dynodes
Increasing high voltage increases kinetic energy of
electrons impacting dynodes
Increases amplification factor

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

Oscilloscope traces from scintillation counters

Plastic scintillator

10 nsec / division

Inorganic crystal, NaI

5000 nsec / division

(Longer time scale for
fluorescence to occur)

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

Close-up of photoelectron trajectories to first dynode

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

References
1. Introduction to Experimental Particle Physics by
Richard Fernow, Cambridge University Press, 1986,
ISBN 0-521-30170-7 (paperback), Chapter 7, pages 148-177
(includes exercises)
2. Photomultiplier Manual, Technical Series PT-61, 1970,
RCA Corporation
3. Techniques for Nuclear and Particle Physics by
W. R. Leo, Springer-Verlag, Germany, 1994,
ISBN 3-540-57280-5, Chapters 7-9, pages 157-214
4. Radiation Detection and Measurement, 3rd Edition,
by Glenn F.Knoll, Wiley 2000, ISBN 0-417-07338-5,
Chapters 8-10, pages 219 - 306

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

Light transmission through entrance wnidow

Percent of light which passes

Different
window
materials

200 nm

Wavelength of light

700 nm

Observe:
20% transmission typical for 400 nm light
Fused silica extends transmission into lower wavelengths
Less than 400 nm is ultraviolet light

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

6. Performance and exercises

Signal shape, pulse height and duration
Pulse height distributions
Linearity
Attenuation length
Oscilloscope examples and exercises with changing
high voltage, radioactive source, attenuation length

Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

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Scintillation Counters and Photomultiplier Tubes

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