A presentation on

Highway Geometrics:
Sight Distances
By
Ashutosh Satish Jadhav
M.E (Transportation Engg.)
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Elements of Highway Geometrics

Basic elements (camber, design speed, pavement characteristics,

etc.)

Gradients

Sight distances

Horizontal curves & extra widening

Transition curves

Vertical curves

Valley curves

SIGHT DISTANCE ELEMENTS

STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE

OVERTAKING SIGHT DISTANCE

Highways/Roads with adequate sight ahead of a travelling vehicle results in safe

operation

Distance along road surface at which a driver has visibility of objects, stationary or
moving, at a specified height above carriage way is known as Sight distance

Stopping Sight Distance is the distance required by a driver of a vehicle travelling

at a given speed to bring her/his vehicle to stop after an object on the roadway
become visible

Stopping sight distance is made up of two components:

Lag distance: distance travelled during perception and brake reaction time

Braking distance: distance travelled during the time brakes are under application
till the vehicle stops

Lag distance

Perception and brake reaction time depend upon factors such as:

Age

Sex

Alertness

Visibility etc.

IRC suggests 2.5 sec a reasonable value for perception and brake reaction time

Thus, distance travelled during perception and brake reaction time is:
d1 = v*t ----------------------------------------------------(if v is in m/s)
= 0.278*V*t = 0.278 V x (2.5) = 0.695 V ----------(if v is in km/hr)
d1 = distance travelled in m
v = speed in m/sec
V = speed in km/hr
t = perception and reaction time = 2.5 sec

Braking distance

Braking distance is the distance required for a moving vehicle to stop after
application of brakes:

d2 = v/2gf
Where,
d2 = braking distance in meters
V = speed in m/s
a = Deceleration rate m/sq. sec

Stopping sight distance = d1 + d2

SSD = (v*t) + (v/2gf)

STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE

Lag Distance

Distance Travelled during

Reaction Time

Braking Distance

Distance Travelled after

application of brakes

STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE

100
90
80
SPEED,
KMPH
70
60
50

Braking Distance

40

Lag Distance

30
20
0.00

20.00

40.00

60.00

80.00

100.00 120.00 140.00 160.00 180.00 200.00

DISTANCE, M

Studies have shown that most drivers decelerate at a rate greater

than 4.5 m/sq.sec. (unexpected object on the roadway)

About 90% of drivers decelerate at rates greater than 3.4 m/sq. sec

Such decelerations are within drivers capability to stay within her/

his lane and maintain steering control during braking maneuver on
wet surfaces.

Thus, 3.4 m/sq. sec has been recommended by AASHTO

Braking system of most vehicles and the tire-pavement friction levels

are capable to provide a deceleration rate of 3.4 m/sq. sec

Stopping sight distance as per IRC

Design speed in kmph

Safe stopping sight distance (metres)

20 . 20
25 . 25
30 . 30
40 . 45
50 . 60
60 . 80
65 . 90
80 . 120
100 180

In case of grade, the stopping sight distance is adjusted as:

d2 = V2/ (254 ((a/9.81) 0.01G)
G = longitudinal grade in percent.

Grade correction should not be applied on undivided roads with two-way

traffic, but must be considered for divided highways which have
independently designed profiles.

For calculation of safe stopping sight distance consider:

Height of the drivers eyes: 1.2m
Height of the object: 0.15m

Stopping sight distances needed on up grades are shorter than on

level roads

Those on down grades are longer

Grade is traversed by traffic in both directions of travel, but sight

distance at any point generally is different in each direction

Sight distance available on downgrades is larger than on upgrades,

more or less automatically providing appropriate corrections for grade

This is why designers do not adjust stopping sight distance because of

grade

Geometrics of divided highways are designed separately

Decision Sight Distance

Stopping sight distances are normally sufficient to stop under ordinary

circumstances

These distances are inadequate when drivers must make complex or

instantaneous decisions when information is difficult to perceive or
when unexpected or unusual maneuvers are required

Examples:

Interchange or intersection locations where unusual or unexpected

maneuvers are required

Change in cross section such as toll plazas and lane drops

Visual noise (competing source of information such as roadway

elements, traffic, traffic control devices and advertisements)

Limiting sight distances to those needed for stopping may preclude

drivers from performing evasive maneuvers, which often involves less
risk and otherwise preferable to stopping

Stopping sight distances may not provide sufficient visibility distances

for drivers to corroborate advance warning and perform appropriate
maneuvers

There are many locations where it would be prudent to provide

longer sight distances

In these circumstances, decision sight distance provides longer sight

distance

Decision sight distance is the distance needed for a driver to detect

an unexpected or otherwise difficult-to-perceive information source
or condition in a roadway environment that may be visually
cluttered, recognize the condition or its potential threat, select and
appropriate speed and path and initiate and complete the maneuver
safely and efficiently

Decision sight distance criteria that are applicable to most situations

have been developed from empirical studies

Distances vary depending on whether the location is on a rural or

urban road or on the type of avoidance maneuver required to
negotiate the location properly

LOCATIONS WHERE SIGHT DISTANCES

PLAY MAJOR ROLE

INTERSECTIONS

HORIZONTAL CURVES

VERTICAL CURVES

SIGNS AND SIGNAL LOCATIONS

NE
I
L

OF

T
H
G
SI

CONFLICT POINT

INADEQUATE VISIBILITY - BAD INTERSECTION DESIGN

FLARING IMPROVES
VISIBILITY

HT
SIG
OF
LINE

VEGETATION BLOCKING THE SIGHT ON A HORIZONTAL

CURVE

ht
Line of Sig

SIGHT DISTANCES AT VERTICAL CURVES ARE

AFFECTED BY GRADIENT. FLATTER SLOPES
PROVIDE HIGHER VISIBILITY

SPEED BREAKER AHEAD SIGN - LOCATION

Overtaking sight distance on two-lane two-way highways:

Overtaking sight distance on two-lane two-way highways:

Overtaken vehicle travels at a uniform speed which is 15kmph less than

the design speed of road

Overtaking vehicle reduces speed and trails behind overtaken vehicle

Overtaking vehicle follows the vehicle ahead to perceive the clear road
ahead before beginning overtaking operation

Overtaking is done by accelerating to the designed speed and hurriedly

returning to its own lane

When overtaking vehicle returns to its lane, it arrives alongside an

oncoming vehicle in the opposite lane

AASHTO suggests that certain clearance should be available between two.

d1 = dist. travelled during the perception and reaction time and during the
initial acceleration to the point of encroachment on the right lane

d2 = actual dist. covered by the overtaking vehicle during overtaking

maneuver

d3 = dist. between overtaking vehicle at the end of maneuver and the

opposing vehicle (clear length)

d4 = distance travelled by an opposing vehicle at the design speed while

the overtaking maneuver is taking place.

Sometimes in practice, distance d4 is taken as 2/3rd of d2 on the reasoning

that the overtaking vehicle can always return to its lane if the driver sees
an opposing vehicle

d1 = vb x t, where vb is the speed of the overtaken vehicle and t may be taken

as 2sec.
Minimum distance between overtaking and overtaken vehicles is a function of
speed and may be considered as:
s = (0.7 vb + 6) metre
If time taken by A from A2 to A3 is T sec, dist. covered by B during that time
is:
b = vb x T
d2 = b + 2s
Again, d2 = vbT + a T2, where a = acceleration
Equating them,
T = 4s/a

d2= vbT + 2s
d4 = v x T
AASHTO suggests a and d3 values based on speed as:
Speed range in kmph
50-65
d3

30

66-80
55

81-95

96-110

75

90

Acceleration in km/hr/sec
a

2.25

2.30

2.37

2.41

IRC has simplified the calculation of overtaking sight distance assuming

that it takes about 9 to 14 sec for the overtaking maneuver.

Additional 2/3rds of this value is added for the distance travelled by the
opposing vehicle:
Speed (kmph)

Safe overtaking sight distance (m)

40 . 165
50 .

235

60 .

300

65 .

340

80 .

470

100 . 640

Sight distance for multi-lane highways

Divided highways with 4 or more lanes need to be designed only

for stopping sight distance.

Effect of grade on passing sight distance

Appreciable grades affect sight distance needed for passing

Passing is easier for vehicles travelling downgrade because overtaking

vehicle may accelerate rapidly and thus reduce the time of passing

However, overtaken vehicle can also accelerate easily so that a

situation akin to a racing contest may result

Sight distance needed to permit vehicles travelling upgrade to pass are

greater

Likelihood of opposing vehicle may speed up is high

Compensating for this somewhat are factors that the passed vehicles
frequently is a truck that usually loses some speed on appreciable
grades

Also drivers are usually aware of the greater distances needed for
passing upgrade (compared to level conditions)

Considering above facts, passing sight distance should be greater than

derived design value

Specific adjustments are not available, but designer should recognize

the desirability of exceeding suggested values

Frequency and length of passing section:

Sight distance adequate for passing should be encountered frequently

on two-lane highways

However, frequency and length depend on topography, design speed

and cost

It is not practical to directly indicate frequency with which passing

sections should be provided on two-lane highways

Designers appreciation of their importance and studied attempt to

provide them can usually ensure others at little or no cost

Sight distance for multi-lane roads

On horizontal curves with obstructions on the inside, lateral clearance to
obtain sight distance is an important issue:

Sight distance is measured along the arc of the curve

For pavements with two or more lanes, sight distance is measured

along the arc at the center line of the inner lane

Case I : When sight distance is less than length of the curve S<L (for
two-lane road)
Angle subtended at the center by the arc = degrees

m = R (R-p/2) cos /2
Where
m = distance to obstruction from center line of road
p = width of inner pavement lane
= angle subtended at the center by arc length S
Also, 360/ = 2 (R-p/2)/S
/2 = 180 S/ 2 (R-p/2)
Case II : When S>L for two-lane road
m = R (R-p/2) cos /2 + (S-L)/2 sin /2