Motivation - Theory and Practice

Chapter 14:
Motivation Theory and Practice
Types of content theories:

Hierarchy
ERG
of needs theory
theory
Two-factor
Acquired
theory
needs theory
Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence

motivation?
Motivation and individual needs
Motivationthe forces within the individual that
account for the level, direction, and persistence of

effort expended at work.
Needs
Unfulfilled physiological and psychological desires of an

individual.
Explain workplace behavior and attitudes.
Create tensions that influence attitudes and behavior.
Good managers and leaders facilitate employee need

satisfaction.
Study Question 2: What are the different types of

individual needs?
Hierarchy of needs theory
Developed by Abraham Maslow.

Lower-order and higher-order needs affect
workplace behavior and attitudes.
Lower-order needs:
Physiological, safety, and social needs.
Desires for physical and social well being.
Higher-order needs:
Esteem and self-actualization needs.
Desire for psychological growth and
development.
Management 9/e - Chapter 14

individual needs?
Hierarchy of needs theory

Deficit
principle
A satisfied need is not a motivator of

behavior.
Progression
principle
A need at one level does not become

activated until the next lower-level need
is satisfied.
Figure 14.1 Opportunities for satisfaction in

Maslows hierarchy of human needs.

motivation?
ERG theory
Developed by Clayton Alderfer.
Three need levels:
Existence needs desires for
physiological and material well-being.
Relatedness needs desires for satisfying
interpersonal relationships.
Growth needs desires for continued
psychological growth and development.

individual needs?
ERG theory
Any/all
needs can influence behavior at
one time.
Frustration-regression
principle.
An already satisfied lower-level need

becomes reactivated when a higher-level
need is frustrated.

individual needs?
Two-factor theory
Developed by Frederick Herzberg.
Hygiene factors:
Elements of the job context.
Sources of job dissatisfaction.
Satisfier
factors:
Elements of the job content.

Sources of job satisfaction and
motivation.
Figure 14.2 Herzbergs two-factor theory.
10

motivation?
Acquired needs theory

Developed by David McClelland.
People acquire needs through their life
experiences.
Needs that are acquired:
Need for Achievement (nAch)
Need for Power (nPower)
Need for Affiliation (nAff)
11

motivation?

Need for Achievement (nAch)
Desire to do something better or more

efficiently, to solve problems, or to master
complex tasks.
People
high in (nAch) prefer work that:
Involves individual responsibility for

results.
Involves achievable but challenging goals.
Provides feedback on performance.
12

motivation?

Need for Power (nPower)
Desire to control other persons, to
influence their behavior, or to be
responsible for other people.
Personal power versus social power.
People
that:
high in (nPower) prefer work
Involves control over other persons.

Has an impact on people and events.
Brings public recognition and attention.
13

motivation?

Need
for Affiliation (nAff)
Desire to establish and maintain friendly

and warm relations with other persons.
People
high in (nAff) prefer work that:
Involves interpersonal relationships.
Provides for companionship
Brings social approval.
14

motivation?
Questions for summarizing the
content theories of motivation:

How many different individual needs
are there?
Can a work outcome or reward satisfy
more than one need?

Is there a hierarchy of needs?
How important are the various needs?
15
Study Question 2: What are the process theories of

motivation?
Process theories of motivation
How people make choices to work hard or not.

Choices are based on:
Individual preferences.
Available rewards.
Possible work outcomes.
Types of process theories:
Equity theory.
Expectancy theory.
Goal-setting theory.
16

motivation?
Equity theory
Developed
by J. Stacy Adams.
When
people believe that they have

been treated unfairly in comparison to
others, they try to eliminate the
discomfort and restore a perceived
sense of equity to the situation.
Perceived inequity.
Perceived equity.
17
Figure 14.3 Equity theory and the role of social

comparison.
18

motivation?
Equity theory
People
respond to perceived negative

inequity by changing
Work inputs.
Rewards received.
Comparison points.
Situation.
19

motivation?
Managerial implications of equity theory
Underpaid people experience anger.
Overpaid people experience guilt.
Perceptions of rewards determine motivational
outcomes.
Negative consequences of equity comparisons
should be minimized, if not eliminated.
Do not underestimate the impact of pay as a
source of equity controversies in the workplace.
Gender equity.
Comparable worth.
20

motivation?
Expectancy theory
Developed by Victor Vroom.
Key expectancy theory variables:
Expectancy belief that working hard will
result in desired level of performance.
Instrumentality belief that successful
performance will be followed by rewards.
Valence value a person assigns to
rewards and other work related outcomes.
21
Figure 14.4 Elements in the expectancy theory of

motivation.
22

motivation?
Expectancy theory
Motivation
(M), expectancy (E),

instrumentality (I), and valence (V) are
related to one another in a
multiplicative fashion:
M=ExIxV
If
either E, I, or V is low,
motivation will be low.
23

motivation?
Managerial implications of
expectancy theory
To
maximize expectancy, managers

should:
Select workers with ability.
Train workers to use ability.
Support work efforts.
Clarify performance goals.
24

motivation?
Managerial implications of expectancy

theory
To maximize instrumentality, managers

should:
Clarify psychological contracts.
Communicate performance-outcome
possibilities.
Identify rewards that are contingent on

performance.
25

motivation?
Managerial implications of
expectancy theory
To
maximize valence in a positive
direction, managers should:

Identify
Adjust
individual needs.
rewards to match individual
needs.
26

motivation?
Key issues and principles in the

goal-setting process:
Set
specific goals.
Set challenging goals.
Build goal acceptance and commitment.
Clarify goal priorities.
Provide feedback on goal
accomplishment.
Reward goal accomplishment.
27

motivation?
Goal-setting theory
Developed by Edwin Locke.
Properly set and well-managed task goals can

be highly motivating.
Motivational effects of task goals:
Provide direction to people in their work.
Clarify performance expectations.
Establish a frame of reference for feedback.
Provide a foundation for behavioral selfmanagement.
28

motivation?
Goal-setting theory
Participation in goal setting
unlocks the motivational potential of goal

setting.
management by objectives (MBO) promotes
participation.
when participation is not possible, workers
will respond positively if supervisory trust
and support exist.
29
Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement

play in motivation?
Fundamentals of reinforcement theory
Reinforcement theory focuses on the impact of

external environmental consequences on behavior.
Law of effect impact of type of consequence on

future behavior.
Operant conditioning:
Developed by B.F. Skinner.
Applies law of effect to control behavior by

manipulating its consequences.
30

play in motivation?
Operant conditioning strategies:

Positive
reinforcement
Increases the frequency of a behavior

through the contingent presentation of a
pleasant consequence.
Negative
reinforcement
Increases the frequency of a behavior

through the contingent removal of an
unpleasant consequence.
31

play in motivation?
Operant conditioning strategies:

Punishment
Decreases the frequency of a behavior

through the contingent presentation of
an unpleasant consequence.
Extinction
Decreases the frequency of a behavior

through the contingent removal of an
pleasant consequence.
32

play in motivation?
Successful implementation of
positive reinforcement is based on
Law of contingent reinforcement
Reward
delivered only if desired

behavior is exhibited.
Law of immediate reinforcement

More
immediate the delivery of a

reward, the more reinforcement
value it has.
33

play in motivation?
Guidelines for using positive

reinforcement:
Clearly
identify desired work behaviors.

Maintain a diverse inventory of rewards.
Inform everyone about what must be
done to get rewards.
Recognize individual differences when
allocating rewards.
Follow the laws of immediate and
contingent reinforcement.
34

play in motivation?
Guidelines for using punishment:
Tell the person what is being done

wrong.
Tell the person what is being done right.
Match the punishment to the behavior.
Administer punishment in private.
Follow laws of immediate and contingent

reinforcement.
35
Figure 14.5 Applying reinforcement strategies: case

of total quality management.
36
Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play

in motivation?
Schedules of reinforcement:
Continuous reinforcement administers a reward each

time a desired behavior occurs.
Intermittent reinforcement rewards behavior only
periodically.
Acquisition of behavior is quicker with continuous
reinforcement.
Behavior acquired under an intermittent schedule is
more permanent.
Shaping is the creation of a new behavior by positive
reinforcement of successive approximations to it.
37
Study Question 4: What are the alternative

approaches to job design?
Job.
A collection of tasks performed in support of

organizational objectives.
Job design.
The process of creating or defining jobs by

assigning specific work tasks to individuals and
groups.
Jobs should be designed so that both

performance and satisfaction result.
38

Job simplification.
Standardizing work procedures and
employing people in well-defined and
highly specialized tasks.
Simplified jobs are narrow in job scope
and low in job depth.
Automation.
Total mechanization of a job.
Most extreme form of job simplification.
39

Potential
advantages of job
simplification:
Easier and quicker
training of workers.
Workers are less
difficult to
supervise.
Workers are easier
to replace.
Development of
expertise in doing
repetitive tasks.
Potential
disadvantages of job
simplification:
Productivity suffers.
Cost increases due
to absenteeism/
turnover of unhappy
workers.
Poor performance
may result from
worker boredom/
alienation.
40
Figure 14.6 A continuum of job design alternatives.
41

Job rotation and job enlargement:
Expands job scope.
Job rotation.
Increases task variety by periodically shifting

workers among jobs involving different task
assignments.
Job enlargement.
Increases task variety by combining two or

more tasks previously assigned to separate
workers.
Horizontal loading.
42

Job enrichment.
Building
more opportunities for
satisfaction into a job by expanding its

content.
Expands
both job scope and job depth.
Frequently
accomplished through
vertical loading.
43

Critical psychological states:

Experienced meaningfulness of work.
Experienced
responsibilities for work
outcomes.
Knowledge
of actual results of work
activities.
44

Core job characteristics:

Skill variety.
Task
identity.
Task
significance.
Autonomy.
Feedback.
45

Moderating variables:
Growth-need
strength (GNS).
People with high GNS will respond most

positively to enriched jobs.
Knowledge
Context
and skills.
satisfactions.
46

Improving core job characteristics:

Form
natural units of work.
Combine
tasks.
Establish
client relationships.
Open
feedback channels.
Practice
vertical loading.
47

Checklist for enriching jobs:
Remove controls that limit peoples discretion

in their work.
Grant people authority to make decisions

about their work.
Make people understand their accountability

for results.
Allow people to do whole tasks or complete

units of work.
Make performance feedback available.
48

Compressed workweek.
Any work schedule that allows a fulltime job to be completed in less than
the standard 5 days of 8-hour shifts.
Benefits more leisure time, lower
commuting costs, lower absenteeism,
and potentially improved performance.
Disadvantages increased fatigue,
family adjustment problems, increased
scheduling problems, possible customer
complaints, and union opposition.
49

Flexible working hours.

Any
work schedule that gives employees
some choice in the pattern of their daily

work hours.
Core
time all employees must be

at work.
Flextime allows employees to
schedule around personal and family
responsibilities.
50

Potential benefits of flexible working

hours:
People
have greater autonomy in work

scheduling while ensuring maintenance
of work responsibilities.
Organizations
can attract and retain

employees who have special non-work
responsibilities.
Worker
morale may be improved.
51

Job sharing.
One
full-time job is split between two

or more persons.
Work sharing.
An
agreement between employees to

cut back their work hours to avoid
layoffs or termination.
52

Potential advantages of work sharing:
Trained and loyal workers can be retained

while temporarily cutting labor costs.
Continued work but with reduced earnings

for those who would otherwise be laid off.
Potential disadvantages of work sharing;
Employees who might otherwise be protected

by seniority may suffer an income loss.
53
Figure 14.7 Job design and individual work outcomes

using the core characteristics model.
Source: Reprinted by permission from J. Richard Hackman and Greg R. Oldham, Work Redesign (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1980), p. 90.
54

Telecommuting.
A
work arrangement that allows a
portion of scheduled work hours to be

completed outside of the office.
Hoteling.
Virtual
offices.
55

Potential advantages of telecommuting:
Freedom from
Constraints of commuting.
Fixed hours.
Special work attire.
Direct contact with supervisors.
Increased productivity.
Fewer distractions.
Being ones own boss.
Having more personal time.
56

Potential disadvantages of
telecommuting:
Working too much.

Having less personal time.
Difficulty in separating work and personal life.
Less time for family.
Feelings of isolation.
Loss of visibility for promotion.
Difficulties supervising work-at-home
employees from a distance.
57

Part-time work.
Work done on any schedule less than
the standard 40-hour workweek and
does not qualify person as a full-time
employee.
Contingency workers
Part-time workers who supplement the
full-time workforce, often on a long-term
basis.
Now constitute 30 percent of the
American workforce.
58

Implications of part-time work:

Provides employers with flexibility in
controlling labor costs and dealing with
cyclical labor demands.
Temporary workers may lack
commitment and be less productive.
Contingency workers are often paid
less and dont receive important fringe
benefits.
59
Figure 14.8 A sample flexible working hours

schedule.
60

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Chapter 14:

Motivation Theory and Practice

Types of content theories:

Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence

account for the level, direction, and persistence of

Unfulfilled physiological and psychological desires of an

Explain workplace behavior and attitudes.

Create tensions that influence attitudes and behavior.

Good managers and leaders facilitate employee need

Study Question 2: What are the different types of

Developed by Abraham Maslow.

Study Question 2: What are the different types of

Hierarchy of needs theory

A satisfied need is not a motivator of

A need at one level does not become

Figure 14.1 Opportunities for satisfaction in

Management 9/e - Chapter 14

Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence

Management 9/e - Chapter 14

Study Question 2: What are the different types of

needs can influence behavior at

An already satisfied lower-level need

Management 9/e - Chapter 14

Study Question 2: What are the different types of

Elements of the job content.

Management 9/e - Chapter 14

Figure 14.2 Herzbergs two-factor theory.

Management 9/e - Chapter 14

Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence

Acquired needs theory

Management 9/e - Chapter 14

Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence

Acquired needs theory

Desire to do something better or more

high in (nAch) prefer work that:

Involves individual responsibility for

Management 9/e - Chapter 14

Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence

Acquired needs theory

high in (nPower) prefer work

Involves control over other persons.

Management 9/e - Chapter 14

Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence

Acquired needs theory

for Affiliation (nAff)

Desire to establish and maintain friendly

high in (nAff) prefer work that:

Involves interpersonal relationships.

Provides for companionship

Brings social approval.

Management 9/e - Chapter 14

Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence

Questions for summarizing the

content theories of motivation:

more than one need?

Management 9/e - Chapter 14

Study Question 2: What are the process theories of

Process theories of motivation

How people make choices to work hard or not.

Types of process theories:

Management 9/e - Chapter 14

Study Question 2: What are the process theories of

people believe that they have