BLOOD

AND
BLOOD STAINS

The test for the identification of

blood is employed as an important
part of the routine investigation in
many cases of violent death.
The specimen usually submitted is
fresh blood or fluid blood, dried
blood and clotted blood. Very often
it is brought to the laboratory as
dried blood or brown stain on
weapons, clothing or other objects.

IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF

BLOOD

1. As circumstantial or corroborative evidence

against or in favor of the perpetrator of the
crime.
2. In case of disputed parentage
3. Determination of the cause of death and the
length of time the victim survived the attack.
4. Determination of the direction of escape of
the victims or the assailant
5. Determination of the origin of the flow of
blood
6. Determination of the approximate time the
crime was committed

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

CASES WHERE BLOOD CAN BE

USED AS EVIDENCE

Stabbing
Mauling
Hit and run
Rape
Paternity cases
Robbery/ burglary

BLOOD
Has been called the circulating tissue of the
body
Made up of formed elements suspended in
a liquid called plasma
Highly complex mixtures of cells, enzymes,
proteins and inorganic substances
About 6 quarts of blood in a average size
man.
It is opaque
slightly alkaline(normal pH is 7.35-7.45)

COMPOSITION OF BLOOD
1. 35% formed elements
a) Red blood cells or erythrocytes- contains
hemoglobin and carries oxygen to various
tissue in the body.
b) White blood cells or leukocytes- defends
the body from invading microorganism and
help fight infection
c) Blood platelets or thrombocytes- produced
by the bone marrow and responsible for
proper clotting of blood.

COMPOSITION OF BLOOD
2. 65% plasma fluid portion of the blood
where cells are suspended.
a) 90% water
b) 10% solid largely protein in nature and
consists of the following:
albumen the most abundant protein of the
blood
globulins important role in the immune
mechanism of the body.
fibrinogen soluble precursors of fibrin
which forms blood clot.

PROBLEMS IN THE STUDY OF BLOOD

1. Where blood has to be

searched?
2. Collection, preservation and
transportation of specimen
suspected to contain blood.
3. Does the stain contain blood or
another substance

Collection of Blood Stain

In collecting blood stain, use a
cotton swab wet with Normal
Saline Solution (NSS), rub until you
absorb all blood in one place. Use
different swab for different blood
stain in different places. Do not
destroy furniture or bring the whole
linen where the blood stain is
found.

Collection of Blood Stain

In cases involving blood, you
need a standard sample from the
victim (in case it is a cadaver) and
also from the suspect.
Blood stain is a needed sample
not decomposed blood. Do not let
your sample to decomposed

Chronological test for blood

1. Preliminary test determine whether the
stain contains blood or another substance.
2. Confirmatory test determines whether
bloodstain really contains blood.
3. Precipitin test determines whether the
stain is human or animal in origin, if not
human, the specific animal family from
which it is originated.
4. Blood grouping test determined the blood
group if stain is human blood

Preliminary test for blood

1. Benzidine test
. Very sensitive test that can be applied to
minute stain
. very delicate test and detect blood when
present in a dilution of 1:300,000 parts.
. It use was discontinued because it was known
to be carcinogenic
. Can be use to very old stain or decomposed
stain with all sorts of contamination.
Positive result: intense blue color produced
immediately
-

Preliminary test for blood

2. Guaiacum test
Fairly delicate test showing presence of
blood in a solution of 1;50,000 dilution.
May not react to very old stain
Limitation of the test: reacts with saliva,
pus, bile, milk, rust, iron, salt, cheese,
potatoes, perspiration and other oxidizing
substances.
Positive result: beautiful blue color that
appears immediately

Preliminary test for blood

3. Phenolpthalein test(Kustle-Meyer test)
Alternative test to benzidine test.
Can detect blood in a dilution of
1:80,000,000 parts.
Positive result is highly indicative of blood
The test also give positive results for
copper salts, potatoes and horseradish.
Positive result: rose color develops/deep
pink

Preliminary test for blood

4. Leucomalachite Green test
Recommended by Adler in 1904
Not as sensitive as the Benzidine test.
Positive Result: malachite green or bluish green
5. Luminol test important presumptive
identification for blood
Reaction of luminal with blood results in the
production of light rather than color.
Extremely sensitive test(diluted up to 10,000
times
Positive result: luminescence or emission of
light

Confirmatory test for blood

The actual proof that a stain is blood is
establishing the presence of the
characteristic pigment, hemoglobin or one of
its derivatives
Hemoglobin is the red coloring matter of the
RBC of the blood
The 3 confirmatory test for blood
1. Microscopic test
2. Microchemical test or microcrystalline test
3. Spectroscopic test

Confirmatory test for blood

1. Microscopic test
. Useful in the demonstration and mensuration of
blood cells
. Use to differentiate between mammalian, avian,
piscine and reptilian blood.
2. Microchemical test and Microcrystalline test
. Identification of blood can be made more specific
if this test is applied or performed.
A. Teicmann Haemin test
B. Acetone-Haemin test
C. Haemochromogen crystal test or Takayama test

Microchemical test and Microcrystalline

test
Principle of the Test: Test depends on
the addition of the specific chemicals
to the blood so that characteristics
crystals with hemoglobin will be
formed.
A. Teicmann Haemin test or Teicmann
Test or Haemin Crystal test
Positive Result: dark brown rhombic
crystals arranged singly or in cluster

Microchemical test and Microcrystalline

test
B. Acetone-Haemin test
Positive result: small dark, diachromic
circular crystals
C. Haemochromogen crystal test or
Takayama test
A delicate test for the presence of
hemoglobin.
Positive Result: large rhombic crystals of
a salmon pink color arranged in cluster.

Confirmatory test for blood

3. Spectroscope test
Most delicate and reliable test for the
determination of the presence of
blood in both old and recent stains
Perform using an optical instrument
called spectroscope

Precipitin test for blood

Standard test used to determine whether
the stain blood is human or animal in origin
Very sensitive and requires only a small
amount
Stain dried as long as 10-15 years still give
positive result
Limitations: precipitin reacts not only with
blood proteins but also with other body
proteins in saliva, semen,, mucus and other
body fluids.

Blood Grouping of Fresh

Blood
If the stain is human blood, did it come
from the victim, the accused or from other
persons. The origin of the blood or blood
stain can be determined by the
identification of the blood groups to which
it belongs? This identification is carried
out on both fresh blood and blood stains.
Human blood of all races can be divided
into definite groups.

A-B-O SYSTEM
In blood grouping of fresh blood A-BO system is used.
It was Landsteiner in 1900, who
discovered the four blood groups
namely group A, B, O and AB
He named the 4 groups based on the
basis of the agglutinogen or antigen
contents of the RBC

A-B-O SYSTEM
Agglutinogens or Antigens are
characteristic chemical structures or
principles that are founds on the
surface of the RBC which stimulates
the production of agglutinins.
There are 2 agglutinogens classified
as Agglutinogen A and agglutinogen
B.

A-B-O SYSTEM
On the other hand serum contains
proteins or principles known as
antibodies or agglutinins, which
cause agglutination or clumping of
RBC
They are anti-toxin substances within
the body, which reacts when
confronted with a specific antigens to
protect the system.
There are 2 agglutinins classified as
anti-A and anti-B

What are blood types?

There are 3 alleles or genes for blood
type: A, B, & O. Since we have 2 genes,
there are 6 possible combinations.

Blood Types
AA or AO = Type A
BB or BO = Type B
OO = Type O
AB = Type AB

http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/units/basics/blood/types.cfm

How common is your blood type?

Percentage Distribution of Blood type World
wide

46.1%
38.8%
11.1%
3.9%

How common is your blood type?

Percentage Distribution of Blood type in the
Philippines

43.3%
26.3%
24.7%
5.7%

Blood Transfusions
A blood transfusion is a procedure in which blood is given to a patient through an
intravenous (IV) line in one of the blood vessels. Blood transfusions are done to replace
blood lost during surgery or a serious injury. A transfusion also may be done if a persons
body can't make blood properly because of an illness.
Who can give you blood?

Universal Donor

People with TYPE O blood are called

Universal Donors, because they can give
blood to any blood type.
People with TYPE AB blood are called
Universal Recipients, because they can
receive any blood type.
Rh + Can receive + or Rh - Can only receive -

B
AB
Universal Recipient

Rh Factors
Scientists sometimes study Rhesus monkeys
to learn more about the human anatomy
because there are certain similarities between
the two species. While studying Rhesus
monkeys, a certain blood protein was
discovered. This protein is also present in the
blood of some people. Other people, however,
do not have the protein.
The presence of the protein, or lack of it, is
referred to as the Rh (for Rhesus) factor.
If your blood does contain the protein, your
blood is said to be Rh positive (Rh+). If your
blood does not contain the protein, your blood
is said to be Rh negative (Rh-).
http://www.fi.edu/biosci/blood/rh.html

A+
B+
AB+
O+

ABABO-

Beinsteins Theory of Blood Group

Inheritance
Beinsteins theory postulates the presence of
three allelic genes A, B and O, according to
him the blood group of any individual is
determined by combination of A,B and O in a
particular pair of chromosomes
One gene from the father and the other from
the mother. Genes A and B are dominant over
gene O. A and B determines the presence of
the corresponding agglutinogens, while O
determines their absence.

Ten Different Matings possible

between the 4 blood groups.
PARENTS

POSSIBLE TYPE OF
CHILDREN

NOT POSSIBLE

OxO

A,B,AB

AxO

A,O

B, AB

AxA

A,O

B, AB

BxO

B,O

A, AB

BxB

B,O

A, AB

AxB

O,A,B,AB

NONE

AB x O

A,B

O, AB

AB x A

A,B,AB

AB x B

A,B,AB

AB x AB

A,B,AB