Human Communication

What is communication?
What is unique about human
communication?
Where did it come from?
How did it evolve?
Significance of human
empathy, shared care,
intentionality, collaboration
and co-operation
How does culture effect
communication?
To what extent do men and
women use language
differently?

What is communication?
All social behavior is a form of
communication;
But it can be inadvertent ..like age, sex, size,
ethnicity, apparent strength, weakness,
gender;
Need to delimit communication in order to
study it..
It must be goal-directed and purposeful
behavior.

What is communication?
Any signal given out by one individual used
by another either to predict the behavior of
the first individual, or something else in the
environment (Thelma Rowell);
Signals function to permit interaction between
fellow species members (con-specifics)
thereby making reproduction and survival
possible..

Five Aspects of Communication

Signal
Meaning
Function
Development
Evolution

Human Communication
is 100% verbal/symbolic, productive (new words
and meanings can be invented);
is 100% non-verbal (involves multi-modal
sensory system;
touch (tactile)movement (kinesiology)
use of space (proxemics)
olfaction (smell)
eye contact (visual)
auditory

The Cooperation Model

Human beings
cooperate with each
other in a speciesspecific way that
involves processes of
shared intentionality.
Two things are required
for cooperation:
Common ground or
joint attentional
frame
Social motivations
for helping and
sharing with others

Infant Pointing: Fundamentally Human

Infants use their shared common ground with a pointing adult (not their
own egocentric interests) to interpret both the adults referential intention
and his underlying motive and social intention.
For most infants, pointing emerges at around the first birthday, before
language, so this indicates that the infrastructure of cooperative
communication operates initially not in support of language but in the use
of the pointing gesture.

Features of human communication and their roots:

Tomasello:
Human cooperative communication emerged first
in evolution when using spontaneous gestures.
Human cooperative communication is dependent
on shared intentionality.
Conventional (modern) communication is
possible only when participants already possess

Natural gestures and a shared

intentionality structure
Skills of cultural learning and imitation

Ape-Human Differences

Apes do not have the skills nor the motivations to form joint
goals and joint attention with others.
They do not collaborate in human-like ways.
In studies, it was found that:
Human infants understand joint activity
Chimpanzees understand their own action from a firstperson perspective and that of the partner from a thirdperson perspective.
Human infants spent far more time than apes looking back
and forth from object to adult, and their looks to the face of
the adult were almost twice as long as those of the apes.
The infants look were sometimes accompanied by smiles;
apes do not smile.

Where Do Signals Come From?

Intention movements (getting ready to
run, fight, hit, play, groom, have sex,
protect yourself etc;
Physiological-by-products as in
autonomic reactions such as pupil
dilation, muscle dilation or constriction,
heavy breathing, increased heart rate,
blushing, fear, fight, ot flight

The message is in.

Unlearned responses to novel,
unexpected stimuli

Surprise/startle
Pain
Anger
Grief
Embarrassment
Confusion/bewilderment

The message is..

determined by tone of voice..not always what humans say,
but how they say it (para-language)
the overall context within which the
signal or message is given
nature of the history of the social relationships of the
actors or participants;
determined by the totality of verbal and
non-verbal cues

The message is enhanced by

Smell..can a 4 billion dollar perfume industry
be all wrong?
Men and woman are affected by
pheromones--our behavior is regulated in a
hidden way I.e. menstrual synchrony, woman
attracted to male axillary odors;
Infants head turn preferentially toward their
own mothers milk;

Message is enhanced by
Gestures (affirming, denying,
exaggerating, welcoming, distancing,
connecting, rejecting, nice, nasty);
emblems..such as O.K, crazy, victory, good
luck, maybe, not-so-good;
illustrations non-specific but somehow
choreographed hand and head and body
motions and movements..underlying words and
emotions

The message is in the

EYES..as in detachment-attachment,
interest-dis-interest,
pleasure displeasure,
dismissive-respectful
TOUCH (Tactile stimulii)..all kinds of touch
including:
intimate, personal, social, public
who has the privilege of touch?

The message is in
The use and control of space?
reflects social status, who gives authority and
status;
wealthy people retain high status..they control
the best space and have more of it
how close can a person be for what kinds of
interactions;
how does use of space reflect local cultural
values and beliefs? Who gives space to others
and why?

Biology of Human Vocalizations

The 90 degree angle created by
vertebral column and head articulation
i.e. with foramen magnum in center of
skull;
By design we have separate oral,
pharyngeal and nasal cavities (spaces)
that can by manipulating by tongue and
lips be closed off from one another

Other adaptations for human

speech
Short muscular tongue;
Short jaw from front to back (brain case gets big space
as mouth becomes smaller and pulled under cranium;
Reduced prognathism (of human jaw jutting forward)
Reduced anterior dentition..no big projecting, conical
shaped canines jutting from tooth row;
Parabolic arch (not v-shapes like monkeys, or parallel
and U-shaped like apes;
Neural mechanisms and adaptations for speech
breathing (volitional control) ;

Language.
Is it.the only reality we will ever know..are
we prisoners of language?
If you cannot label it, do you experience it?
Are pre-verbal infants unable to experience
states they cannot describe?
Do you see a color you have no label for?
Do animals have language? Or an
understanding or sense of language?

What does language do?

Informs
Requests
Shares
Permits collaboration
Permits helping and cooperation through mind reading
and empathy;
Emancipates hands for other tasks
Expands beyond visual communicative domain
Permits individual-based communication
Permits shared imagination (including lying)

Language is
A finite number of
meaningless
utterances,
recombined into an
almost infinite
number of meaningful
sentences and
phrases

You Just Dont Understand?

By Deborah
Tannen
Women and Men
In Conversation
(Quill Press 2001)

Language: A biocultural perspective of evolved

male-female psycho-sexual proclivities..??
conversational styles, modes and tendencies are
seen to act as a vehicle for men to achieve
social well being and reproductive
success..however defined..
conversational modes which distinguish men and
women are viewed as reflecting each of the
sexes emotional needs and tendencies which
however biologically based are acted on by early
cultural values, examples and experiences which
either inhibit or exaggerate those tendencies

Assymetries Lead To Mis-interpretations

Tannens basic premise:
Men engage in a world perceived as a hierarchial
social order in which a man is either one-up or
one down;
In this world conversations are negotiations in
which people try to achieve and maintain the
upper hand if they can--and not be pushed
around..life is a struggle to preserve
independence and avoid failure..
Power and accomplishment frame interactions

Women
Tannen uses herself as an example. She
states..
I, on the other hand, was approaching the world as
many women do; as an individual in a network of
connections. In this world, conversations are
negotiations for closeness in which people try to seek
and give confirmation and support, and to reach
consensus. They try to protect themselves from
others attempts to push them away. Life, then, is a
community, a struggle to preserve intimacy and avoid
isolation.

Men and Women, boy and girl

Men value and rely on rules, laws, hierarchy (larger
principles) to govern their behavior..
Girls seek to attach--connect--become the same as
the other..they pay attention to feelings and
relationships (this frames their interactions with
others)
Boys seek to separate, distinguish, chose to
dominate, display skill (one upsmanship)..
Men talk to get respect, women talk to connect. Men
speak more in public, less so in intimate settings;

Use of assent terms by women when

women or men speak..
refers to..vocal and gestural support
cues.. inviting a person to continue
speaking--shows interest by one
speaker in what another is saying:
head bobbing -agreeing as a person
speaks..
Use of uh-huh, uh-huh, (or) I see-- yes, I
see, uh-huh.yes

Differential judgment made of same behavior

Boasting avoided by women, acceptable amongst
men less negative rating, more expectable
When women use tag sentences and disclaimers
(like Well,I may not know as much about this as I
should but}
women are judged less intelligent and less
knowledgeable than are men using same
expressions (Patricia Bradley)

Connection and male need to demonstrate

skill and knowledge
does not negate the males wanting to
connect implied by male problem
solving i.e. helping..
They co-exist.
But mens and womens tendencies to
place different relative weights on status
versus connection (with others in groups)
results in assymetrical roles

Non-conscious Signals and Cues

Reflected in Language Styles ?
How do you fix or determine the sex of
a caller on the telephone?
Pitch and volume of voice?
How about verbal signals and cues tied
to gender AND sex roles:
Use of tags, disclaimers, conditions or
qualifiers?
My own situation. little story

Easy examples of Conversational Roles of

Men and Women..tags
Use of tag sentences is done mostly by
women:Its a nice day, isnt it?
I thought Steve Martin last few movies were too
serious, do you think?
Deans campaign seems to be picking up
momentum, do you agree?
This good is bad, huh?
Researchers find that even without knowng anything
about, ..when tags are used, both men and women
identify the speaker as ..a women..

Men use silence?

to exercise power over women..by not
reacting, women feel insecure about not
proceedingwith their views
But many men see their silence as
respect and supportand wonder why
women are so reticent to present their
views

Women can be disadvantaged in

professional setting because:
How people speak, regardless of sex or
gender..makes a difference in who gets credit
for an idea or thought..and what gets heard..
Research shows that on average women are
more likely than men to phrase a thought as a
question, speak at lower volume but a higher
pitch, and take less time to express their view

Mis-interpretations
A man invites his best friend to stay over with he and
his wife that evening--without calling to discuss
with his wife..
His wife is upset that he did not consult--reach
consensus
He sees it as a no-brainer and is upset--that she is
upset and fails to see the importance of what he
had to do. He could not (in front of his friend ) be
seen as needing to seek permission and be seen
as dependent, child-like--and not independent

Background:Evehadalumpremoved
fromherbreast..sheexplainedtoher
sisterthatshefounditupsettingtohave
beencutinto..andthatlookingatthe
stitcheswasdistressingtoherbecause
theyleftaseamthathadchangedthe
contourofherbreast..
HersistersaidIknow.Itslikeyour
bodyhasbeenviolated

Butwhenshetoldherhusband,Mark,howshe
felt,hesaid,Youcanhaveplasticsurgeryto
coverupthescarandrestoretheshapeofyour
breast.
Evehadbeencomfortedbyhersister..butnotby
herhusband.Mark;scommentupsether.She
said:Imnothavinganymoresurgery..Im
sorryyoudontlikethewayitlooks.Markwas
hurtandpuzzled.Idontcare,heprotested.
Thenwhyareyoutellingmetogetsurgery?
shesaid.Hesays:Becauseyouweretellingme
youwereupsetaboutthewayitlooked.

Mis-interpretations
Tannensays:Evewantedthegiftof
understanding,butMarkgaveher
whathethoughtshewouldappreciate
themostasolutiontomakeherfeel
better..thegiftofadvise.

Different content?
Men speak less about troubles and
relationships;
Interested more in solving trouble and not
recognizing that they exist--as it is a sign of
incompetence among men..not to be able to
solve troublesor even to have
them..Perhaps this explains why so many
men fail to get medical aid and die
prematurely as a consequence..

Men mis-interpreted?
Men will speak less about womens problems
not because they do not care about them, but
because women will fail to do anything about
them..and men interpret continued attention
to them asmaking it worse;
Men fail to see troubles as a levelingconnecting issue, in need of mutual support,
leading to statements of sameness but as a
issues which separate and remind the man-he is incompetent at solving a problem..

Socialization: boys and girls

lie down
gimme your arm
try to give me
medicine, stay away
Come, on be a doctor
Commands, statements
declaratives..high status
role (Dr.)79% of time

(Boys)
*Jacqueline Sachs and
Marjorie Goodwin

Lets sit down and use

it
Lets ask her..
We could..
Lets move these out
first
Girls invite each
other..boys command
each other..ask what
role..share role more

(Girls)

Early sex differences from parental

examples?
Boys make
commands without
giving reasons;
Pliers. I want the
pliers. Look man, I
want the pliers right
now (black children
between 6-13 streets
of Phliadelphia
making slingshots)

Girls reflect more

egalitarianism-inclusiveness,
community, concern for
the others feelings;
we got to clean them
first. You know.
I know
Cause they got germs
From: MGoodwin

Do Men Challenge and Women Seek

Agreement?
Women students react
to Tannens book..
All ten women were
exploring, asking for
clarification,explanation
or personal
information..Can you
explain further.. Can
you give another
example..Are differences
biological or social..

Men students.. Your book

deals a lot with
pyschology. Why did you
object to the way the
psychologist interrogated
you at the seminar
Tannen heard mens
questions as a chance to
undercut her authority
Male professor set her
up?Here is your chance
to get at a real
expert.Predictable?

Tannens work
implies that how we phrase things and how
we choose one manner of stating something
over another--moves beyond the message
per se.
implies that language reflects societal
expectations and idealized roles and statuses
(good or bad) that men and women either
play--or at some level, it is thought they
should play

Language is about
Metamessages;
.information about the relations among the
people involved, and their attitudes toward what
they are saying or doing, and the people they
are saying or doing it to Tannen pg.32
In other words the message of helping says
this is good for youbut giving help may send
metamessage I am more competent than
youand in that sense it is good for the helper.

Metamessages
are about framing a conversation..much like a
picture frame surrounds and gives context to
the picture inside
metamessages let you know how to interpret
what someone is saying by identifying the
activity that is going on
(is this an argument, advising, or scolding)
lets you know what position the speaker is
assuming and what role you are being
assigned by the speaker..

Males-female differences? or
simply personality differences?
A man and women are driving along
and the women says:
Would you like to stop and get a
cappuccino?the man replies
No, I am still full from breakfast.
A few minutes later the women is
silently fuming and hurt? Why?

Theyre my troubles not yours

He
She
Im really tired. I did not

I didnt sleep well,

sleep well last night
either
Why are you trying to
Im not. I am just
belittle me?
trying to show that I
He was interpreting her
understand.
attempts to connect as
The women was hurt
a challenge to his own
independence or
and mystified by her
uniqueness..She was
husbands reaction..
trying to sympathize..

Differences?
When men lecture
other men--the
listeners are
experienced at
trying to sidetrack
the lecture, match it,
or derail it--to
exchange
information;

But women are not

used to responding
in this manner.They
have little choice but
to listen..Men like to
lecture to women
precisely BECAUSE
women are used to
listening attentively

Tannens experiences
When she talked with a women about her
book each told about their work and each
gave the other encouragement..
When she spoke with men, she encouraged
them to talk about their research, which they
did so with enthusiasm, but not one
encouraged her, in turn, to speak more about
her research

Sex roles and language

Men do not ask for information, women
do..Why? Relates to mens constant
negotiation for status..
Self-reliance is a male value.. And the
expectation that men who ask are less in
control, less skilled, knowledgeable--(of lower
status) as regard being a male and being in
the company of a woman--who a man sees
as being dependent on his knowledge..

Vocal Communication vs
Gestural Communication
In vocal communication, there is
basically no monitoring.
Gestural communication takes place
in the visual channel, spatially
directed toward a single individual,
which requires the communicator to
check that the recipient is visually
attending.

Multiple Functions of Human

Communication: Shared Intentionality and
Cooperation
To affirm social role, status, position, authority,
identity and for humans affirming a way of life through
ritual public and private ceremony, public institutions,
by clothing..etc etc;
creates group identity, cohesion, solidarity;
allows for interactional predictability, organization,
successful reproduction
in-group, out-group demarcations..Most importantly:
To inform, to share, to request, to collaborate, to help!