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Kimberlite
What is a kimberlite? Based on Clement et al. (1984), kimberlite is a
volatile-rich, potassic, ultrabasic, igneous rock which occurs as small
volcanic pipes, dykes, and sills. It has a distinctively inequigranular
texture resulting from the presence of macrocrysts set in a finergrained matrix. This matrix contains, as prominent primary
phenocrystal and/or groundmass constituents, olivine and several of
the following minerals: phlogopite, carbonate (commonly calcite),
serpentine, clinopyroxene (commonly diopside), monticellite,
apatite, spinel, perovskite and ilmenite. The macrocrysts are
anhedral, mantle-derived, ferromagnesian minerals which include
olivine, phlogopite, picroilmenite, chromian spinel, magnesian
garnet, clinopyroxene (commonly chromian diopside), and
orthopyroxene (commonly enstatite). The macrocrysts and relatively
early-formed matrix minerals are commonly altered by deuteric
processes, mainly serpentinization and carbonatization. Kimberlite
commonly contains inclusions of upper mantle-derived ultrabasic
rocks.
Petrology
Kimberlites are divided into Group I (basaltic) and Group II
(micaceous) kimberlites. This division is made along mineralogical
grounds.
The general consensus reached on kimberlites is that they are
formed deep within the mantle, at between 150 and 450 kilometres
depth, from anomalously enriched exotic mantle compositions, and
are erupted rapidly and violently, often with considerable CO2 and
volatile components. It is this depth of melting and generation which
makes kimberlites prone to hosting diamond xenocrysts.
The mineralogy of Group I kimberlites is considered to represent the
products of melting of lherzolite and harzburgite, eclogite and
peridotite under lower mantle conditions. The mineralogy of Group II
kimberlites may represent a similar melting environment to that of
Group I kimberlites, the difference in mineralogy being caused by the
preponderance of water versus carbon dioxide.
Group I kimberlites
Group I kimberlites are of CO2-rich ultramafic potassic igneous
rocks dominated by a primary mineral assemblage of forsteritic
olivine, magnesian ilmenite, chromian pyrope, almandine-pyrope,
chromian diopside (in some cases subcalcic), phlogopite, enstatite
and of Ti-poor chromite. Group I kimberlites exhibit a distinctive
inequigranular texture cause by macrocrystic (0.5-10 mm) to
megacrystic (10-200 mm) phenocrysts of olivine, pyrope, chromian
diopside, magnesian ilmenite and phlogopite in a fine to medium
grained groundmass.
The groundmass mineralogy, which more closely resembles a true
composition of the igneous rock, contains forsteritic olivine, pyrope
garnet, Cr-diopside, magnesian ilmenite and spinel.
Group II kimberlites
Group-II kimberlites (or orangeites) are ultrapotassic, peralkaline
rocks rich in volatiles (dominantly H2O). The distinctive
characteristic of orangeites is phlogopite macrocrysts and
microphenocrysts, together with groundmass micas that vary in
composition from phlogopite to "tetraferriphlogopite" (anomalously
Fe-rich phlogopite). Resorbed olivine macrocrysts and euhedral
primary crystals of groundmass olivine are common but not
essential constituents.
Characteristic primary phases in the groundmass include: zoned
pyroxenes (cores of diopside rimmed by Ti-aegirine); spinel-group
minerals (magnesian chromite to titaniferous magnetite); Sr- and
REE-rich perovskite; Sr-rich apatite; REE-rich phosphates
(monazite, daqingshanite); potassian barian hollandite group
minerals; Nb-bearing rutile and Mn-bearing ilmenite.
Geochemistry
The geochemistry of Kimberlites is defined by the following
parameters:
Ultramafic; MgO >12% and generally >15%
Ultrapotassic; Molar K2O/Al2O3 >3
Near-primitive Ni (>400ppm), Cr (>1000ppm), Co (>150ppm)
REE-enrichment
Moderate to high LILE enrichment; LILE = >1,000ppm
High H2O and CO2
Diamond Geology
Kimberlite Pipes
Diamonds form at a depth greater than 93 miles (150 kilometers) beneath
the earth's surface. After their formation, diamonds are carried to the
surface of the earth by volcanic activity. A mixture of magma (molten rock),
minerals, rock fragments, and occasionally diamonds form pipes shaped
like champagne flute glasses as they approach the earth's surface. These
pipes are called kimberlites (see diagram below). Kimberlite pipes can lie
directly underneath shallow lakes formed in the inactive volcanic calderas
or craters.
Mg-ilmenite
Kimberlitic ilmenites can be
distinguished from other ilmenites by
their high MgO content, typically
containing >4 wt.%. Ilmenites from
Diamond Lake kimberlites (red dots)
contain 4 to 15 wt.% MgO, and are
low in Cr2O3, most grains contain
<1 wt.% Cr2O3. Glacial sediments
(blue dots) contain kimberlitic
ilmenite as well as ilmenite form
other sources. Each kimberlite has a
distinct Cr2O3 versus MgO
signature that is mimicked by the
glacial sediments and kimberlite
boulders collected down-ice, as
shown in the Cr2O3 versus MgO
plots.
Pyrope
Subcalcic harzburgitic garnets are associated with
diamondiferous kimberlites. They can be
differentiated from other lherzolitic, harzburgitic or
dunitic garnets by plotting CaO versus Cr2O3. The
diagonal line separating lherzolitic and harzburgitic
garnets is the 85% line defined by Gurney (1984).
Garnets that fall below the 85% line, i.e. low-Ca Crpyropes, are "subcalcic" or G10 garnets derived
from harzburgite. The high chrome content gives
these garnets a distinct lilac purple color. The
vertical line separates Cr-poor, orange-red garnets
having <2 wt. % Cr2O3 from the purple peridotitic
garnets. Garnets from Diamond Lake kimberlites
(red dots) are mostly G9 (lherzolitic), and only a few
are subcalcic-G10 garnets. Garnets in the glacial
sediments, in general, have similar compositions to
those in the kimberlites. The low abundance of G10
garnets in the kimberlites and glacial sediments is
consistent with the low diamond grades of these
pipes.
The G10 field is better described as diamond in field. It will contain lherzolitic
garnets (>45 Kb) which could be diamond bearing (garnets in G9 field may be
harzburgitic that will not be high pressure enough to be diamondiferous).
Chromite
Chromite associated with diamonds
has a high Cr2O3 content (>60 wt. %)
and moderate to high level (12-16 wt.
%) of MgO. The compositions of
chromites from Diamond Lake
kimberlites represent a "poor"
chromite population with only a few
chromite xenocrysts approaching the
diamond inclusion field. This is
consistent with the trace quantities of
diamonds found in these pipes.
Chromite grains in glacial sediments
show similar compositions to those
from the kimberlites, suggesting many
of the grains are from kimberlite.
Cr-diopside
Cr-diopside Cr-rich (>0.5 wt.% Cr2O3)
diopside is easily identified by its distinctive
green color. It indicates the presence of
kimberlite but provides little information on
the presence of diamonds in the kimberlite.
Cr-diopsides in the Kirkland Lake area
occur in ultramafic rocks as well as
kimberlites, although only kimberlites
contain very Cr-rich (>1.5 wt.% Cr2O3)
diopsides. The Diamond Lake kimberlites
contain pale green (0.5 wt.% Cr2O3) to
bright green (1.0 to 4.0 wt.% Cr2O3) Crdiopside. The presence of Cr-diopside is
not a useful kimberlite indicator on its own,
because of the ubiquitous distribution of
Cr-diopside grains in glacial sediments
across the Kirkland Lake region and the
difficulty in distinguishing between Crdiopsides from kimberlite and those from
other rocks.
Olivine
Olivine has hitherto rarely been used as
kimberlite indicator mineral since it occurs
in abundance in basalts and other
ultramafic rocks and is not unique to
kimberlite. It is, however, the most
abundant mineral in the upper mantle (main
component of peridotite) and occurs as a
macrocryst and phenocryst phase in
kimberlite. It is often the most abundant
mineral in heavy mineral concentrates from
kimberlites. Olivine from kimberlite and
peridotite is MgO-rich (close to the forsterite
end member of the olivine solid solution
series) and is colorless to pale yellow or
pale green. Its chemistry is characterized
by high Mg-number (Mg/(Mg+Fe) between
84 and 95 and notable traces of NiO.
Hard-Rock Mining
The term "Hard Rock Diamond Mining" (top of page, left) refers to
various techniques used to mine gems, minerals, and ore bodies by
tunneling underground and creating underground "rooms" or "stopes"
supported by timber pillars of standing rock. Accessing the underground
ore is achieved via a "decline" or a "shaft". A "decline" is a spiral tunnel
which circles the flank of the ore deposit or circles around the deposit. A
"shaft" is vertical tunnel used for ore haulage and runs adjacent to the
ore. A "decline" is generally used for personnel and machinery access to
the ore.
Placer Mining
Placer Diamond Mining, also known as "sand bank mining" (top of
page, right) is used for extracting diamonds and minerals from alluvial
secondary deposits. Placer Mining is a form of open-pit or open-cast
mining used to extract minerals from the surface of the earth without
the use of tunneling. Excavation is accomplished using water pressure
(a.k.a. hydraulic mining), mechanized surface excavating equipment,
or digging by hand (artisanal Mining).
Marine Mining
Marine mining technology only became commercially viable in the early
1990s. Marine diamond mining employs both "vertical" and "horizontal"
techniques to extract diamonds from offshore placer deposits. Vertical
marine mining uses a 6 to 7 meter diameter drill head to cut into the
seabed and suck up the diamond bearing material from the sea bed.
Horizontal mining employs the use of Seabed Crawlers (remotely
controlled, CAT-tracked underwater mining vehicles) move across the sea
floor pumping gravel up to an offshore vessel.
Carbonatite:
Carrier for Nb, Ta, REE
REE:
Monazite (Ce,La)[PO4]
Bastnaesite Ce[CO3]F
Parisite
Ce2Ca[CO3]3F2
Rinkolite CeNa2Ca4Ti[Si4O15]F3
Nb and Ta:
Niobite
(Fe,Mn)Nb2O6
Tantalite (Fe,Mn)Ta2O6
Pyrochlore (Ca,Na)2(Nb,Ti)2O6F
Microlilte CaNa(Ta,Ti)2O6(OH,F)
Fergusonite Y(Nb,Ta)O4
Loparite (Ca,Na,Ce)(Ti,Nb)O3
Euxenite (Y,Ca,Ce,U,Th)(Nb,Ta,Ti)2O6
Samarskite (Y,Ce,U,Ca,Pb)(Nb,Ta,Ti,Sn)2O6
Simpsonite
Al4(Ta,Nb)3O13(OH,F)
Tantalite
Niobite
IDENTIFICATION
SYNONYMS: Nephelinitic and ultramafic carbonatite-hosted deposits.
BYPRODUCTS: Niobium, tantalum, REE, phosphate, vermiculite, Cu,
Ti, Sr, fluorite, Th, U magnetite (hematite, Zr, V, nickel sulphate,
sulphuric acid, calcite for cement industry).
EXAMPLES:
Magmatic: Aley (REE, niobium), St. Honor?(niobium, Quebec,
Canada), Mountain Pass (REE, California, USA), Palabora (apatite,
South Africa).
Replacement/Veins: Rock Canyon Creek (Fluorite, REE), Bayan Obo
(REE, China), Amba Dongar (fluorite, India), Fen (Fe, Norway),
Palabora (Cu, vermiculite, apatite, South Africa).
Residual: Araxa, Catalao and Tapira (niobium, phosphate, REE, Ti,
Brazil), Cargill and Martison Lake (phosphates, Ontario, Canada).
GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Carbonatites are igneous rocks with more than 50% modal carbonate
minerals; calcite, dolomite and Fe-carbonate varieties are recognized.
Intrusive carbonatites occur commonly within alkalic complexes or as
isolated sills, dikes, or small plugs that may not be associated with other
alkaline rocks.
Carbonatites may also occur as lava flows and pyroclastic rocks. Only
intrusive carbonatites (in some cases further enriched by weathering) are
associated with mineralization in economic concentrations which occur as
primary igneous minerals, replacement deposits (intra-intrusive veins or
zones of small veins, extra-intrusive fenites or veins) or residual weathering
accumulations from either igneous or replacement protores.
Pyrochlore, apatite and rare earth-bearing minerals are typically the most
sought after mineral constituents, however, a wide variety of other minerals
including magnetite, fluorite, calcite, bornite, chalcopyrite and vermiculite,
occur in economic concentrations in at least one carbonatite complex.
Back scatter
electron image
(BSEI)
REE concentrate
P concentrate
Nb concentrate
(pyrochlore)
Glimmerlite
Carbonatite
complex
- -
1500 Ma
9000
18km 5km
1500-1400 Ma
270 Ma
K-Ar *Th-Pb
230Ma
1.
**
* Eschynite (Ce,Ca,Fe,Th)(Ti,Nb)2(O,OH)6
** Humite (Mg,Fe2+)7(SiO4)3(F,OH)2
2.
3.
1. ( )
2. deltaS34 0.52
3.
87Sr/86Sr
The world's largest REE deposits are those at Bayan Obo in China, with
grades of 3 to 6% REO (Rare Earth Oxide) and reserves of at least 40
million metric tons, and at Mountain Pass in California with a grade
averaging 9.3% REO and reserves of 20 million metric tons.