Probing the Subatomic World

Nucleus consists of protons and neutrons. This explains

the existence of isotopes, isobars, isotones, isomers and
mirror nuclei.
The nucleus:
A
MZ , e.g. 14C6
Z = atomic number, # of protons/electrons
A = atomic mass, total # of nucleons
N = A Z = number of neutrons

ISOTOPES nuclides with identical Z

ISOBARS nuclides with identical A
ISOTONES nuclides with identical N
ISOMERS two nuclei of the same species but different
energy states, of which at least one is metastable
MIRROR NUCLEI proton (neutron) number of one
is the neutron (proton) number of the other
Which are isotopes, isobars, isotones, mirror nuclei?
12

B5, 14C6,14N7, 14O8, 16O8

Isotopes - 14O8, 16O8

Isobars - 14C6,14N7, 14O8
Isotones - 12B5, 14N7
Isomers - 14O8, 16O8
Mirror nuclei - 14C6, 14O8

NUCLEAR SIZE (R. Hofstadter) mean electromagnetic

radius, i.e. the radius to the 50% point in the
density distribution
Re = (1.07 0.02) A1/3 x 10-15 m = 1.07 A1/3 F
1 F (fermi) = 10-15 m

What is the mass number of a nucleus having a radius

one third that of 27Al13?

Discovery of radioactivity
Becquerel uranium
M. Curie polonium and radium
Debierne and Giesel actinium
O. Hahn radiothorium, mesothorium
Radioactive emissions
o alpha particles helium nucleus
o beta particles fast electrons
o gamma rays em radiation with wavelengths greater than
X-rays

Radioactivity
- decay :helium nucleus is emitted from radioactive
nuclide, leaving latter with two units less charge
and four units less mass number
(Z,A) (Z 2, A 4) + 2He4
- decay: a negative electron is emitted, leaving the
nucleus with one unit more charge and the same
mass number
(Z,A) (Z + 1, A) + -decay: an electromagnetic quantum is emitted, leaving the
charge and mass number of the nucleus unchanged
(Z,A)* (Z, A) + h
How to test whether , , ?

xx B-field

source

Geiger counter- measures radioactivity

Units:
Curie (Cu) quantity of any radioactive material giving
3.7 x 1010 disintegrations per minute
Rutherford (rd) amount of radioactive substance which
gives 106 disintegrations per second.
Rutherford and Soddy surmised four families of
radioactive elements

Now
where

A = Ao - 4
Ao = original nuclide
N = # of particles emitted
N = # of particles emitted
Z = Zo - 2 N + N

These suggest there might exist 4 different series

of radioactive elements, characterized by a
different value m for the mass numbers of its members
A = 4n + m

Series
4n
4n + 1 4n + 2 4n + 3
Parent nucleus Th232
Np237
Ur238
Ur235
Stable nucleus

Halflife ( T1/2, y) 1.39x106 2.25x106 4.51x109 7.07x108

Series 1 those with atomic weight being a multiple of 4
e.g. 228, 232, 236
Series 2 those with atomic weight 4n + 1
e.g. 229, 233, 237
Series 3 those with atomic weight 4n + 2
e.g. 230, 234, 238
Series 4 those with atomic weight 4n + 3
e.g. 231, 235, 239

The shell model predicts that nuclei with proton numbers Z

or neutron numbers N equal to 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, and 126
are stable. e.g. lead
Half-life
-measures the life history of radioactive elements by
counting the remaining element at a given time
-the characteristic decay of a radioactive element is
exponential
-the time for a quantity of radioactive
#
element to be reduced by half is
called half-life time
time
half-life

Halflife governs the rate of disappearance after it is

isolated from the other members of the family
T1/2 = 0.693/
= disintegration constant; the fraction of atoms
present that decay per unit time
N = No e- t

 -decay and neutrinos

This is a result of the transformation of a neutron
into a proton.
1
n

p
+
e
+
o
The energy spectrum is continuous.

Heines and Cowan verified the existence

of neutrinos using the reaction
P + n + e-

FISSION
Enrico Fermi and Emilio Segre, in 1934 bombarded
uranium with neutrons and found several -ray
activities with different half-lives
Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman, in 1938 showed that
One of the radioactive elements in the Fermi/Segre
Experiment was an isotope of barium (56Ba141)
Otto Frisch and Lisa Meitner suggested that uranium was
Undergoing a nuclear fission process:
U235 + n

U236

X + Y + neutrons

n is a slow neutron
U236 is a highly unstable isotope
X and Y are fission fragments
X and Y can be either Ba144 and Kr89 or Xe140 and Sr94
Xe decays into Cs, then Ba to La and to Ce
Sr decays into Y and then Zr
The process releases neutrons and heat energy. The heavy
nucleus captures a slow neutron. The Coulomb repulsion
distorts the nucleus within 10exp-13 seconds. The nucleus
fragments with the release of prompt neutrons. This may take
only seconds or years delaying the release of neutrons.

Energy released in nuclear fission

Before fission(isotopic mass)
U(235)
n

After fission (isotopic mass)

= 235.0439 amu
=
1.0087 amu
236.0526 amu

Ce(140) = 139.9054 amu

Zr (94) = 93.9036 amu
2n
=
2.0173 amu
6= 0.0330 amu
235.8296 amu
Mass difference = 0.233 amux931 MeV/amu = 208 MeV
cf. with -particle disintegration giving energy = 5 MeV and
chemical combustion process energy of 4 eV.

Fast Breeder relies on fast, highly energetic neutrons

Fast Breeder relies on fast, highly energetic neutrons

Pu239

n
U238

U239

fp
fp

Np239

Disintegration of fertile isotope by fast neutron. The fission process

releases heat energy as by-product.

Definitions of terms and equivalences

Units of Energy: 1 joule (J) = 1 newton-meter
1 J = 0.738 ft-lb = 107 ergs
1 cal = 4.186 J
1 Btu = 252 cal = 1054 J
1 kWh = 3.6 x 10exp6 J
1 barrel of oil (BOE) = 5.8x106 Btu
1 Q = 1018 Btu = 1021 J
= 1.85x1011 BOE
= 3x1014 kWh

ENERGY RESOURCES
A. Operating Reserves (in Q)
Coal
Oil
Natural gas
Shale
TOTAL FOSSIL
Hydroelectric (p.a.)
Geothermal (natural)
Fission (thermal)

27.1
1.7
1.9
0.87
32.0
0.1
0.002
2.0

B. Potential Reserves (in Q)

Fission (fast breeder)
Solar (p.a.)
Geothermal (hot rock)
Fusion (D-T)
(lithium107 tons)
(D-D)

200
1000
1000
1x106
3x1010

ENERGY CONSUMPTION
Current consumption = 12 terawatts (85% from
fossil fuels); 1TW=5BBOE
Projected for 9 B population = 27 TW
for 14 B population = 42 TW

ICRP limits of radiation for individuals

Organ or tissue

Annual dose limits

(in rem*)
Gonads, red bone marrow
0.5
Skin, bone, thyroid
3.0
Hands & forearms, feet/ankles
7.5
Other single organs
1.5
Whole body (uniform)
0.5
*rem (roentgen-equivalent man) measures the dose
equivalent in terms of the absorbed dose in rads =
100 ergs/gram, of energy deposition x quality factor
e.g quality factor of X-rays =1; fast neutrons = 10 and
Alpha particle radiation = 10

Some qualitative information

1. Existence of radioactive elements imply the Earth has not
been around for an infinite period of time; the absence of
actinium series imply the Earth is many times 2x10exp6
years. It is believed this series was initially created with the
other three series.
2. Abundance of U235 and U238 (about 1:140) suggest that
elements are perhaps not much older than 5x10exp9 years
when the relative abundance of these were equal
3. Estimate of the age of meteorite is 4.5x10exp9 years,
lower limit to the age of the universe itself, supporting the
hypothesis of cataclysmic event that formed the elements

Some scientific processes

1. C14 and H3 are formed at about 10-15 km altitude in the
presence of atmospheric O; the oxidation occurs to create
14
CO2 and 3HOH mixing with natural CO2 and water in
the atmosphere.
2. Assimilation of 14 CO2 by plant life along with ordinary
CO2 is subsequently transferred to animal life. The C14
radioactive substance formed by cosmic rays become part of
the reservoir of carbon that participate in the life cycles of
living things making all living tissue somewhat with a
degree of radioactivity which disintegrates at 15.5/minute/
gram of carbon. When the living thing dies, part of the
carbon it contains may remain out of circulation for many
years. This carbon does not mix with freshly formed radiation
and decays as C14 naturally.

3. 3H dating used in problems connected with rainfall and

meteorology, such as relation between ground water
present at a given locality and local rainfall.
4. 7Be used in the study of atmospheric mixing with its 53-day
halflife

FUSION
Hans Bethe suggested in 1938 that a nuclear reaction
in which two nuclei came together to form a single
heavier species plus the release of large quantities of
energy.
Carbon cycle : 1H +

C
7N
12

N +
6C + e +

Some Fusion Reactions

Threshold Plasma
temperature

Average energy gain

per fusion*

D + T

He(4) + n

10 keV

1800

D + D

T +

50 keV

70

100 keV

180

He(3) + n
D + He(3) He(4) + p
T + He(3) He(4) + 2n + E
1 eV = 11,600 K
* ratio of energy released to energy absorbed per reaction

Experimental Requirements for Fusion

1. reaction rate must be high to produce useable quantities of power
2. power by fusion reaction must be greater by an order of
magnitude than the power required to support the reaction
Pfus 3nT/E
Pfus = nDnT Vr (DT) EDT
3nT = thermal energy content of plasma
E = characteristic time in which plasma loses its energy due to
all possible mechanisms such as conduction, convection,
radiation
nDnT = densities of deuterium and tritium components

EDT = total energy released per DT fusion reaction

Vr (DT) = total cross section for reactions
Pfus is maximum when nD = nT = n/2
Lawson criterion nE [12T/EDT] / Vr (DT)
If T = 10 keV, EDT = 40 MeV; Vr (DT) = 10-23 m3/s
nE 1.5 x 1020 s/m3 (minimum for DT reaction)
nE T 1021 keV s/m3 (triple product)

Princeton TFTR

Courtesy Princeton Univ.

Main Parameters
Total Fusion
Power
1.5 Gw
Burn Time
1000 s
Plasma Current
21 MA
Maximum Toroidal
Magnetic Field
5.7 T

Courtesy ITER Program