Factors Affecting

Second Language
Learning

Intelligence
Aptitude
Personality
Motivation and Attitude
Learner preferences
Learner beliefs
Age of acquisition
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The Good Language

Learner

Are there personal characteristics that

make one learner more successful than
another?
In your experience, as an English learner, which
characteristics seem to you most likely to be
associated with success in L2 acquisition?
(Please turn to p. 50 and do the questionnaire)
Then share your opinion with your group
members. Find three most important and three
least important learner characteristics.
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Before looking at
learner characteristics

Difficulties in research on learner characteristics and

SLA:
1)

A learners language proficiency can be defined and

measured in many ways (e.g. *CALP vs. BICS). That is, there
are many ways to define the success of language learning.

2)

It is not possible to directly observe and measure qualities

such as motivation, personality, aptitude, and intelligence.
They are just labels of behaviors.

3)

These psychological variables are often not independent of

one another. Researchers may use the same labels to
describe different sets of behavioral traits.

4)

A correlation of two factors does not mean that there is a

causal relationship between them. That is, the fact that two
things tend to occur together does not necessarily mean that
one caused the other.
*Note:

CALP cognitive/academic language proficiency

BICS basic interpersonal communicative skills

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Intelligence

Intelligence has multiple types:

Traditionally, intelligence refers to the mental

abilities that are measured by an IQ (intelligence
quotient) test. It usually measures only two
types of intelligence: verbal/linguistic and
mathematical/logical intelligence.

There are other types of intelligence such as

spatial intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic
intelligence, musical intelligence, interpersonal
intelligence, and intrapersonal intelligence. (see
the handout)

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Intelligence

Linguistic intelligence: speaking, using words, writing,

giving presentations, solving word problems.

Logical-mathematical intelligence: using numbers,

logic, calculations; learning and understanding grammar
rules.

Spatial intelligence: drawing, painting, using color, art,

graphics, pictures, maps, and charts.

Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: muscular coordination,

athletic skill, body language, drama and theater.

Musical intelligence: using music, tones, hearing;

producing the intonation and rhythm of a language.

Interpersonal intelligence: talking with other people,

understanding them, using language to communicate.

Intrapersonal intelligence: self-knowledge, selfconfidence, using language to analyze yourself.

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Intelligence

Research findings:
1.

Intelligence, especially measured by verbal

IQ tests, may be a strong factor when it
comes to learning that involves language
analysis and rule learning.

2.

On the other hand, intelligence may play a

less important role in language learning that
focuses more on communication and
interaction.
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Intelligence

Conclusions:

It is important to keep in mind that

intelligence is complex and that a person
has many kinds of abilities and strengths.

An individual with strong academic

performance does not necessarily mean
that s/he is a successful second language
learner.
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Aptitude

Aptitude refers to potential for achievement. An

aptitude test is designed to make a prediction
about an individuals future achievements.

Aptitude for language learning is usually

composed of four different types of abilities:
1)

The ability to identify and memorize new sounds

2)

The ability to understand the function of particular

words in sentences

3)

The ability to figure out grammatical rules from

language samples

4)

The ability to memorize new words

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Aptitude

Research findings:
1)

Earlier research revealed a substantial

relationship between aptitude for language
learning and performance in foreign language
that was taught with grammar-translation or
audiolingual methods.

2)

However, aptitude seems irrelevant to L2

learning with the adoption of a more
communicative approach to teaching (i.e., with
a focus on meaning rather than on form).
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Aptitude

Conclusions:

Successful language learners are not

necessarily strong in all of the components of
aptitude.
(e.g., Some may have strong memories but only
average ability to figure out grammatical rules.)

Teachers can select appropriate teaching

approaches and activities based on learners
aptitude profiles to accommodate their
differences in aptitude.
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Personality

There are a number of personality

characteristics that are likely to affect
L2 learning, such as

Extroversion vs. introversion

Inhibition vs. risk-taking

Self-esteem (self-confidence)

Anxiety

Empathy
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Personality

Research findings:
1.

Some studies have found that learners success in language

learning is associated with extroversion such as assertiveness
and adventurousness, while others have found that many
successful language learners do not get high scores on
measures of extroversion.

2.

Inhibition is a negative force for second language

pronunciation performance.

3.

However, in general, the research does not show a clearly

defined relationship between personality and SLA. The major
difficulty is identification and measurement of personality
characteristics.

4.

Personality may be a major factor only in the acquisition of

conversational skills (i.e., oral communicative ability), not in
the acquisition of literacy skills (i.e., reading and writing
skills).
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Motivation & Attitude

Types of motivation
needs):

Purpose

Source

Integrative

Instrumenta
l

(in terms of communicative

Intrinsic (Internal)

Extrinsic (External)

The learner wishes

to learn L2 for
personal growth and
cultural enrichment.

Someone else (e.g., the

learners parents) wishes
the learner to know L2
for an integrative
reason.

The learner wishes

to achieve practical
goals using L2 (e.g.,

External power wants

the learner to learn L2
for a practical purpose

for a career).

(e.g., a corporation asks

its staff to get language
training).
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Motivation & Attitude

Research findings:
1)

Both integrative and instrumental types of

motivation are related to success in L2
learning. Most L2 learning situations involve
a mixture of each type of motivation.

2)

Research strongly favors intrinsic motivation,

especially for long-term retention.
Intrinsically motivated learners are striving
for excellence, autonomy, and selfactualization.
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Motivation & Attitude

An individuals identity and attitudes towards

the second language community:

Positive

Negative

learning L2 is enrichment.
learning L2 is resentment.

Social dynamics and power relationships

between L1 and L2.

Minority group members learning the language of a

majority groups may have different attitudes and
motivation from those of majority group members
learning a minority language.

Think of why an ESL learners and an EFL learners

attitude may differ in motivation and attitude.
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Motivation & Attitude

Motivation in the classroom setting:

Motivating students in to the lesson.

Varying the activities, tasks, and materials to

increase students interest levels.

Using cooperative rather than competitive

goals to increase students self-confidence.

Creating a supportive and non-threatening

learning atmosphere.

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Learner Preferences
(Learning Styles)

Learning style :
An individuals natural, habitual, and preferred way of
absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and
skills (Reid 1995).

Types of learning styles related to L2 learning:

Perceptual learning styles:

visual, aural/auditory, and haptic (kinesthetic & tactile)

Cognitive learning styles:

1) field-independence vs. field- dependence
2) reflectivity vs. impulsivity
3) right-brain dominance vs. left-brain dominance
4) tolerance of ambiguity
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Learner Preferences
(Learning Styles)

Perceptual learning styles:

Visual learner: learns more effectively through the

eyes (seeing).
Auditory (aural) learners: learns more effectively
through the ears (hearing).
Haptic learner: learns more effectively through
touch and body movement (a combination of the
kinesthetic and tactile styles).
Kinesthetic learner: learns more effectively
through concrete body experience (body
movement).
Tactile learner: learns more effectively through
touch (hands-on).
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Learner Preferences
(Learning Styles)

Cognitive learning styles (1):

field-independence vs. field-dependence

Field independent (FI) learners pick out hidden

figures in a complicated drawing more quickly.
They tend to perceive elements independently of
a context or field and focus on details. They are
more analytical.

Field dependent (FD) learners are more inclined

to see the whole drawing and have difficulty
separating it into parts. They tend to perceive the
whole field or situation and focus on general
meaning. They are more relational.
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Learner Preferences
(Learning Styles)

Cognitive learning styles (1):

field-independence vs. fielddependence
Heres a puzzle for you. Look at the row of
strange shapes below. Can you find what the
message is?

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Learner Preferences
(Learning Styles)

Cognitive learning styles (1):

field-independence vs. field-dependence
Research findings:

FI is related to classroom language learning that involves

analysis, attention to details, and mastering of exercise,
drills, and other focused activities (CALP).

FD is related to the communicative aspects of language

learning that require social outreach, empathy, perception of
other people, and communicative skills (BICS).

FI/FD may also prove to be a valuable tool for differentiating

child and adult language acquisition due to the fact that
FI increases as a child matures to adulthood.

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Learner Preferences
(Learning Styles)

Cognitive learning styles (2):

reflectivity vs. impulsivity

Reflective learners tend to make a slower,

more calculated decision. They are usually
more systematic and more cautious in
learning L2.

Impulsive learners tend to make a quick or

gambling guess at an answer to a problem.
They are usually more intuitive and more
willing to take risks in learning L2.
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Learner Preferences
(Learning Styles)

Cognitive learning styles (3):

right-brain vs. left-brain dominance

The right brain perceives and remembers visual, tactile,

and auditory images. It is more efficient in processing
holistic, integrative, and emotional information.

The left brain is associated with logical, analytical

thought, with mathematical and linear processing of
information.

*Note: Though we all tend to have one hemisphere that is more dominant,
it is important to remember that the left and right hemispheres
operate together as a team. Most best solutions to problems are
those in which each hemisphere has participated optimally.

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Learner Preferences
(Learning Styles)

Cognitive learning styles (4):

ambiguity tolerance

The person who is tolerant of ambiguity is willing to accept

innovative and creative possibilities and not be cognitively
or affectively disturbed by ambiguity and uncertainty.

In second language learning a great amount of apparently

contradictory or ambiguous information is encountered
(e.g., words, grammatical rules, and cultural systems in
the L2 differ from the L1). Successful language learning
requires tolerance of such ambiguities, at least for interim
periods.

However, too much tolerance of ambiguity can have a

detrimental effect. People can become wishy-washy and
may make many mistakes without awareness when using
the second language.
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Learner Preferences
(Learning Styles)

Research findings and implications:

1)

Every person, student or teacher, has a learning style;

therefore, there is no particular teaching or learning
method that can suit the needs of all learners.

2)

Learning styles exist on wide continuums, although

they are often described as opposites.

3)

Learning styles are value-neutral; that is, no one style

is better than others.

4)

Very little research has examined the interaction

between different learning styles and success in L2
learning; however, students should be encouraged to
stretch their learning styles so that they will be
more empowered in a variety of leaning situations.
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Learner Beliefs

Virtually all learners, particularly older

learners, have strong beliefs about how
their language instruction should be
delivered.

Learner beliefs are usually based on

previous learning experiences and the
assumption that a particular type of
instruction is better than others.

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Learner Beliefs

Research findings:
The available research indicates that
learner beliefs can be strong mediating
factors in learners L2 learning process.
e.g., L2 learners progress was negatively affected
by an instructional approach that was not
consistent with their beliefs about the best ways
for them to learn.
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Learner Beliefs

Implications:
1)

Learners preference for learning, whether due

to their learning styles or to their beliefs about
how language are learned, will influence the
kinds of strategies they choose to learn new
material.

2)

Teachers can use this information to help

learners expand their repertoire of learning
strategies and thus develop greater flexibility
in their second language learning.
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Age of Acquisition

The relationship between a learners age and

his/her potential for success in second
language learning is complicated.

The relationship needs to take into account

1) the stage of L2 development, 2) the goals
of learning L2 (i.e., In what aspects of the L2
the learner has achieved), and 3) the context
in which the learner learns L2 (including
language input, learning environment, and
socio-cultural context).
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Age of Acquisition

Research findings:
1) L2 development in informal language learning
environments where the TL is used primarily:

Children can eventually speak the L2 with native-like

fluency, but their parents and older learners (i.e., postpuberty learners) are hard to achieve such high levels
of mastery of the spoken language, especially in
pronunciation/accent.

Adults and adolescents can make more rapid progress

toward mastery of an L2 in contexts where they can
make use of the language on a daily basis in social,
personal, professional, or academic interaction.
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Age of Acquisition

Research findings:
2) L2 development in formal language learning
environments (i.e., classrooms):

In the early stages of the L2 development, older

learners (adolescents and adults) are more efficient
than younger learners (children).

Learners who began learning an L2 at the elementary

school level did not necessarily do better in the long
run than those who began in early adolescent.

It is more difficult for post-puberty learners to attain

native-like mastery of the spoken language, including
pronunciation, word choice, and some grammatical
features.

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Age of Acquisition

Conclusions (I):
- At what age should L2 instruction begin?

Those who support critical period hypothesis (CPH):

Younger is better (particularly in the phonological
achievement)

Those who consider that the age factor cannot be

separated from factors such as motivation, social
identity, and the conditions for learning:
Older learners may well speak with an accent because
they want to keep their L1 identity, and the language
input for adults is different from that for children
because they rarely get access to the same quantity
and quality of language input that children receive in
play setting.
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Age of Acquisition

Conclusions (II):

When the goal is basic communicative ability of the

TL, rather than native-like mastery, and when
childrens native language remains the primary
language, it may be more efficient to begin L2 or FL
learning later (e.g., in early adolescence at age
10, 11, or 12).

When learners receive only a few hours of

instruction per week, those who start later often
catch up with those who began earlier.

One or two hours a week will not produce very

advanced L2 speakers, no matter how young they
were when they began learning.
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Summary
1. Age is only one of the characteristics which
affects the learners L2 learning. The
opportunities for learning (i.e., context - both
inside and outside the classroom), the
motivation to learn, and individual differences
in intelligence, aptitude, personality, and
learning styles have also been found to be
important determining factors in both rate of
learning and eventual success in learning.

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Summary
2. The study of individual learner variables is not
easy and the results of research are not
entirely satisfactory, partly because of the lack
of clear definitions and methods for measuring
the individual characteristics and partly
because of the complex interactions of those
characteristics. Thus, it remains difficult to
make precise predictions about how a
particular individuals characteristics influence
his/her success as a language learner.
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Summary
3. Implications for second language teaching:
Even though the research findings are not
conclusive in the relationship between personal
factors and second language learning, teachers
should take learners individual aptitudes,
personalities, and learning styles into account
to create a learning environment in which
virtually all learners can be successful in
learning a second language.

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The End

Now review the diagram of

Learner Characteristics.

http://www2.nkfust.edu.tw/~emchen/SLA/intr
o.htm

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