Theories of Learning:

Constructivist Theories
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
19 May 2009

Outline
Overview of Constructivism
Schema Theory
Situated Cognition

Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

Assumptions of
Constructivism
Knowledge is constructed as learners
make sense of their experience
Knowledge constructions may not match
reality

Learners actively seek meaning in the

environment
In the learning process, learners create
and test theories until a satisfactory
explanation is known
Knowledge is context-dependent
Social interactions are vital to learning
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

Types of Constructivism
Psychological Constructivism:
Learning as improving individual
knowledge and cognitive abilities
Many cognitive theories of learning can
also be classified as Psychological
Constructivist theories

Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

Constructivism:
Process of Learning
Schema
:
Typically a
misconceptio
n

Test
Schema

Develop new
schema
(Accommodate
)
No

Expected
Results?
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

Yes

Assimilate

Schema
Schema: Structure for representing
concepts in memory
Schema Theory: Theory of how
knowledge is represented and how the
representation of knowledge guides the
application of knowledge
Incoming information from the
environment is organized around
previously developed schema
Gist: Central idea
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

Schema
Schemas are like:
Dramas: Schemas provide the script where
the variables (aka characters, setting, and
action) are unique to each performance
Theories: Interpret phenomenon and
make predictions about unobserved events
Procedures/Algorithms: Evaluate new
information to determine the fit to the
schema and then directs future behavior

Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

Properties of Schemas
Schemas are developed by prior knowledge and
experience
Actively build schemas and revise in light of new
information
Information from the environment is processed
and transformed depending on prior schemas
Schemas help people understand, interpret, and
remember incoming information
Facilitates memory because it is easier to
remember schema than details
Culture influences schemas
Memory for knowledge or an event is determined by the
cultural context in which it takes place
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

Functions of Schema

Organize knowledge
Assist recall
Guide behavior
Enable predictions
Make sense of current experiences

Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

Learning New Knowledge

Three reactions to new information:
Accretion: Incorporate new information
to existing schemata without making
changes to the schemata
Tuning: Modify schemata to be more
consistent with experience
Restructuring: Create a new schemata
because of inconsistency between old
schemata and new information
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

Benefits of Schema
Benefits of connecting new
information to prior knowledge:
Better retention of information
Better ability to access information in
authentic situations

Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

Schema Theory in Education

Students construct and apply
appropriate schema to solve practical
problems in various domains
Become expert problem solvers in
school courses

Instructional Strategies
Reduce extra cognitive load Irrelevant
tasks
Increase relevant cognitive load
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

Identifying Students
Schemas

Observe
Ask for explanation
Ask to make predictions
Ask to teach another student

Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

Classroom Implications
Prior knowledge influences what and how a student
learns
What is remembered is largely a function of what was
understood to begin with
Students learn best when they link new information with
related existing ideas
Information is forgotten unless integrated into existing
schemata

The schemas of students are different from each other

and from the teacher
Both understanding and memory are driven by meaning
Learning should occur in the context in which it will be
used
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

Types of Constructivism
Social Constructivism: Learning as
increasing the ability to participate with
others in activities meaningful within the
culture
Culture influences thinking when a more skilled
person uses tools and practices from the
culture to instruct another toward valued
cultural goals
Thinking influences culture when members
generate new practices and solutions to add to
the cultural groups repertoire
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

Situated Cognition
Situated Cognition: Skills and
knowledge are tied to the situation
where they were learned
Knowledge learned outside of a
meaningful context is useless
Focus on apprenticeships
Expert guides novice, beginning with simple
tasks and move to more complex tasks

Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

Situated Cognition
Situated Cognition: Cognition is adapted
to the environment
Learning develops in a social context

Other theories of learning assume that

learning occurs within the learner
Learners internalize knowledge
Individual person is on the learner

Situated Cognition: A culture is the learner

Knowledge: Effective living practices within the
culture
Learning: Developing the ability to use the tools
and skills valued by ones society
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

Principles of Situated
Cognition
Cognition is social:

Other learning theories assume knowledge is

out there so learning is the process of
internalizing knowledge
Situated Cognition: Learning requires social
participation.
Cognition takes place in the social environment
Minds are not separate from the culture

Knowledge is distributed across the

cultural environment
Tools, books, and communities

Knowledge is effective participation in

socially valued endeavors
Education should aim to help students to
engage meaningfully with the
environment
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

Most
Learning
Theories

Situated
Cognition
Determine
s

Knowledge

Knowledge
Internalize

Culture

Effectivel
y engage
in culture
Influences

Learner
Learner

Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

Situated Cognition
What is a community that you participate
in?
What is your role in that community?
What are the tools you use in that
community?
What is the language that you use in that
community?

Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

Situated Cognition in
Education
Knowledge does not transfer between tasks
Teaching by abstracting concepts is not effective
because learning only occurs in authentic situations
Inert Knowledge: Knowledge that a student has
acquired but is not able to be applied to relevant
situations

Authentic Learning: Students learn a subject

in a manner similar to how an expert in that
domain practices
Create an environment that is as similar as possible
to the context where knowledge and skills will be
applied
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

Situated Cognition in
Education
Learning in formal education should
focus on acquiring knowledge and
skills in contexts that reflect how the
knowledge and skills will be useful in
real life (Collins, 1988)
Students learn subjects by becoming
historians, mathematicians,
scientists, etc. by cognitive
apprenticeships
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

Benefits of Situated Cognition in

Education
Students are more likely to:
Learn about the conditions for applying
knowledge
Engage in creativity and problem solving
Understand the implications of their
knowledge
Organize knowledge in ways that enable
them to apply knowledge to later use

Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

Revision
What are the assumptions of a constructivist view
of learning?
What is the difference between psychological
constructivim and social constructivism?
What are schemas and how do they influence
learning?
What are the three ways that schemas are
developed?
What is the major proposition of situated
cognition?
What implications does situated cognition have
for education?
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos