Structure Geology

Structure Geology
Structure Geology is the study of the threedimensional distribution ofrockunits with
respect to theirdeformationalhistories.
Deformation in rock due to stress.

Stress: Force applied

Compressive stress
Tensile stress

Shear stress

Strain: Deformation cause by stress

Dilation (change in volume)
Distortion (change in shape & volume)
Elastic deformation
Brittle deformation
Plastic deformation

Geological Structures
Bed
Fault
Fold
Joint
Unconformity

Bed and bedding plane

Bed: layers of sedimentary rocks having
planner form with top and bottom
surface.
Bedding plane: top or bottom part of bed
is bedding plane.

Based on thickness of bed of

sedimentary rock
Very thick bed- >100cm
Thick bed- 30cm to 100cm
Medium bed- 10cm to 30cm
Thin bed- 1cm to 10 cm
Lamina- <1cm
Foliation: layers or bands of rock in
metamorphic rock.

Attitudes or orientation of rock

Strike- a line form by the
intersection
of
imaginary
horizontal line with the inclined
bedding plane.
Dip direction: it refers to the
direction of inclination.
Dip amount: Steepness of the
bedding
plane
or
angle
between bedding plane with
horizontal plane.

True dip & apparent

dip

Fault
Fault is a planner fracture or discontinuity in a rock
across which has significant displacement.
Fault is the result of brittle behavior of rocks.
Large fault in the earths crust is the result of tectonic
action. Energy release association with rapid
movement of active fault is the cause of most
earthquake.

Part of the fault

Fault plane
Hanging wall
Foot wall
Heave
Throw

Parts of fault

CRITERIA FOR FAULTING

Direct evidences

Slickenslides
Breccia
Gouge
Abrupt termination of strata

Indirect evidences

Repetition and omission of strata

Physiographic features
Mineralization

Classification of fault
Geometric classification
Based on the relative movement of the
blocks along strike line

Genetic classification
Based on the relative movement of the
blocks along fault plane

Geometric classification:
Strike fault
Dip fault
Oblique fault

Geometric classification
Strike fault: strike of fault plane is parallel
to the strike bedding plane
Dip fault: strike of the fault plane is
perpendicular to dip direction of bedding
plane
Oblique fault: suggested both dip fault
and strike fault.

Genetic classification:
Normal fault
Reverse fault
Strike-slip fault

Normal fault
Hanging wall moves downwards with
respect to footwall.
It is also known as gravity fault.

Reverse fault
Hanging wall moves upwards with respect
to the footwall. It is of three types
Reverse fault: >45
Thrust fault: 10-45
Overthrust :<10

Strike-slip fault
The movement of the block is horizontal.
If the left block moved towards the
observer , it is known as sinistral fault and
if the right block toward the observer ,it is
known as dextral fault.

Other types of faults

Parallel fault
Step fault
Radial fault
Horst and gaben fault
Enechelon fault

Wasatch Front NE of Salt Lake City, UT

Engineering
Significant
of
Fault

Faulted zone is the weak, porous and unstable

zone of the area.
Faulting reduces the strength of the rock.
If the fault is still active, infrastructure may
damage due to movement.
Groundwater leakage through the fault plane,
therefore, there may occurred the problem of
groundwater.
Dam, tunnel, bridge may collapse, if it lies at
faulted zone.
In case of electricity pole, telephone pole, the
work can be carried out without much risk

Since fault bring total new rock, the properties may

be different from the neighboring rock, so
foundation across these area are undesirable.
There is maximum chances of landslide in faulted
zone, as the water passes through the fault plane
acts as lubricant with fault gauge and breccias.
Fault should be thoroughly improved by grouting,
removal of the loose material and refilling with
cement, rock nailing or anchoring etc.

Fold
A bend or buckle in any pre-existing
result of deformation.
Stress applied is of compressive types.
Ductile nature of deformation i.e
bending

rock as a

permanent

Part of the fold

Left limb
Right limb
Axial plane
Hinge line
Core
Crest and trough
Axis
Angle of fold

dentification of fold in field

Direct observation
Repetition of strata
Attitude of the bed

Classification of fold
Based on upward and downward bend
Based on axial plane
Based on hinge line
Based on limbs
Based on depth
Based on shape
Based on orientation of AP and HL
Based on mode of occurrence

Based on upward and downward bend

Anticline fold
Syncline fold

Based on axial plane

Symmetrical: AP vertical
Asymmetrical: AP inclined
Overturned: AP inclined , limbs dips at same
direction
Recumbent: AP horizontal, limbs horizontal

Based on hinge line

Non-plunging fold: HL horizontal
Plunging fold: HL inclined

Based on limbs
Gentle:120-180
Open:70-120
Close:30-70
Tight:<30
Isoclinal

Based on depth
Similar fold: depth at axial region is thicker
than limbs
Parallel fold: nearly equal thickness

Based on shape
Rounded
Angular
Chevron
Box

Based on orientation of AP and HL

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Horizontal normal: AP vertical, HL horizontal

Horizontal inclined: AP Inclined, HL horizontal
Recumbent: AP horizontal, HL horizontal
Plunging normal: AP vertical, HL inclined
Plunging inclined: AP inclined, HL inclined
Reclined: AP inclined, HL inclined (strike of AP perpendicular to
trend of fold axis)
7. Vertical: AP vertical, HL vertical

On the basis of mode of occurrence

Synclinorium: A Synclinorium fold that is
exceptionally large in sized with syncline
outline. Limbs are found in several minor
undulation in syncline form.
Anticlinorium: An Anticlinorium
fold is also an exceptionally
large fold having anticline
outline. Limbs are found in
several minor undulation in
anticline form.

Dome: Folds which are equivalant to anticlines, but are

comprised of layers which are shaped like an inverted bowl.
Three-dimensional anticline resembling inverted cereal bowl
Basin: Folds which are equivalent to synclines, but are comprised
of layers which are shaped like a bowl. Three-dimensional
syncline resembling upright cereal bowl

Unconformity:
When there is depositional gap occurred between the
two sequences of the strata in an area is known as
unconformity. Unconformity always represents the time
gap between the two sequences of deposition.
Disconformity: The beds that lies above and below are
parallel to each other. Also called parallel nuconformiy.
Angular unconformity: The lower beds are folded or
inclined with respect to upper bed i.e younger bed.
Non conformity: The lower beds are composed of
igneous bodies and the upper beds are composed of
sedimentary rocks.

Recognition of unconformity
Directly visible in hills, quarry site and terraces
Contract in the attitude of two sequences
Inclined or folded layers can be seen

Joints:
Joints are fracture surfaces along which there has
been no displacement.
Joints can form from compressional, tensional and
shear stress, and can range in size from microscopic
to kilometers in length.
Joints may be vertical, horizontal or inclined
depending upon the stress applied.

Terminologies of joints
Master joints: major continuous joint
Joint set: group of joint with same attitude
Conjugate joint: two set of joint perpendicular to
each other
Joint system: two or more than two set of joints
present in exposure
Open joint: exists of small direction between two
block
Close joint: blocks having no separation or gaps
Continuous joint: joints that runs upto maximum
distance
Discontinuous joint: joints having short length

Classification of joints
Genetic classification
Geometric classification

Genetic classification:
Mural Joint: three sets of joints exists
perpendicular to each other. Mostly
occurs in massive igneous rock due
to contraction of magma while
cooling and solidifies.
Columnar joint: major joint planes
break the rock into hexagonal
prismatic columns. Most common in
volcanic igneous rock like basalt.

Sheet joint: one set of joint plane which looks

like a layer of sedimentary rock. Most common
in igneous rock.
Tension joints: cracks that developed in the
folded structure mostly at crests and trough
part.
Shear joint: joints or cracks that exists at fault
zone or shear zone.

Geometric classification
Dip joint: strike of a joint is parallel to
the dip of the bedding ie joint strike and
bedding strike are perpendicular to each
other.
Strike joint: strike of a joint and strike of
the bedding are parallel to each other
but dip may in either direction.
Oblique joint: strike of the joint makes
an oblique angle with the strike of the
bedding plane.

Effect of joints:
Joints are also weak planes like fault plane but
comparatively less harmful.
High percolation of water.
Highly jointed rocks are not suitable for tunnel,
foundation of bridge or road.
High chances of mass movement in road
construction
High chances of weathering
Good for quarry site

Ptygmatic Folds