Electrical and Electronics Measurements and

Instruments
EE - 306

3rd Semester
Electrical Engineering

Examination scheme
Teaching Scheme
Class
Room
Contact
Hrs
45

Examination Scheme

Practical

Activity
Based
Learning

Credits

University
Examination

Mid Sem
Examination

Continuous
Evaluation

Total
Marks

00

00

60

25

15

100

Text Books:
Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation, A. K.
Sawhney, Dhanpatrai and Sons, New Delhi.
Modern Electronic Instrumentation and Measuring Techniques, Cooper D.
and A.D. Heifrick, P.H.I.
Teaching Scheme
Class
Room
Contact
Hrs
00

Examination Scheme

Practical

Activity
Based
Learning

Credits

University
Examination

Mid Sem
Examination

Continuous
Evaluation

Total
Marks

30

00

40

--

60

100

Syllabus

Measurements
Analog meter, extension of instrument range
Instrument transformer
Measurement of resistance, Potentiometers and AC
bridges
Measurement of energy and power
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO), Electronic instruments
Sensors and transducers
Accessories for measuring instruments

Electrical versus electronics

Electrical
Deals with conductors

Electronics
Deal with semiconductors

Measurement
The measurement of given quantity is
essentially an act or the result of comparison
between the quantity (whose magnitude is
unknown) and a predefined standard.
Result must be numerical value.
Measurement is the process by which one can
convert physical parameters to meaningful
numbers.

Requirement for measurement

Standard which you use must be accurately
defined
Standard should be commonly accepted
Apparatus used and method adopted must be
provable

Significance of measurement
Advancement in technology depends upon
measurement tech.
Major function of engineering
Design of equipment and process
Operation and maintenance of that
Both functions above require measurements

Measurement confirms
validity of hypothesis
Add its understanding

Types of methods
Direct method
the unknown quality
(also called the
measurand) is directly
compared against a
standard
Result = numerical
number + unit
Ex. Mass = 2 kg

Indirect method
Direct method always
not possible, feasible or
practicable
Measuring other
functionally related
quantities and
calculating the desired
quantity rather than
measuring it directly
Ex. R = V/I

Instrument
Q. How do we measure quantity?
A. Using the instrument
Definition of instrument
A device for determining the value or magnitude of
a quantity or variable

Output of instrument
Numerical value of measurand or
Signal

Classification of instruments
Type-1 classification
Mechanical
Reliable for static and stable
conditions
Unable to respond rapidly in
dynamic condition

Electrical
Responds more rapidly than
mechanical methods
Depends on mechanical
meter movement

Electronics
Very fast response
Responds in dynamic
conditions

Type-2 classification
Absolute instruments
Gives the magnitude of
quantity under measurement in
terms of physical constants of
the instrument
Do not require comparison
with any other standard
instrument
Ex. Tangent galvanometer

Secondary instruments
Quantity being measured can
only be determined by the
output indicated by the
instrument
Instruments require calibration

What is Calibration?
Check the instrument against a known
standard and subsequently to find errors and
accuracy.
For Calibration, instrument is compared with
Primary standard
Secondary standard with higher accuracy than
instrument to be calibrated
An instrument with known accuracy

Definitions
Accuracy
Closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the
true value of the variable being measured.
Point accuracy: 1-point accuracy
Percentage of scale range: 500 0.2%
Percentage of true value

Precision
A measure of the reproducibility (consistency) of the
measurements.
A measure of the degree to which successive measurements
differ from one another.

Accuracy versus Precision

Example-1
We want to measure current of 1A using ammeter
Zero adjustment is wrong
Now reading are obtained
So ammeter is precise but not accurate

Example-2
Measure known voltage of 100 V using voltmeter
Readings are 104, 103, 105, 103 and 105V
Accuracy = 100 5%
Mean = 104V and Deviation = 1V
Precision = 1%

Calibration improves accuracy not precision.

Errors in measurement
No measurement is free from errors
If precision is adequate, accuracy doesnt
matter.

Types of errors
Gross errors (human errors)
Misreading
Incorrect adjustment
Improper application of instruments
Computational mistakes

Systematic errors
Defective or worn parts of instrument
Environmental effects

Random errors
Random variations in the parameter

Classification of errors

Limiting errors (Guarantee errors)

Relative (Fractional) limiting error
Combination of quantities with limiting errors
Known errors

Limiting errors
Manufacturer specifies deviations from the
nominal value of a particular quantity.
The limits of these deviations are defined as
limiting errors.
If
As = nominal value
A = limiting error (maximum error)

Then
Actual value Aa = As A

Relative limiting error

Ratio of the error to the specified (nominal)
magnitude of a quantity.
A 0
relative limiting error r

As As

Example of relative limiting error

A 0-150V voltmeter has a guaranteed
accuracy of 1% of full scale reading. The
voltage measured by this instrument is 75V.
Calculate limiting error in percentage.
Comment upon the result.

Solution
Magnitude of limiting error is
A = rAs = 0.01*150 = 1.5V

The measured voltage is 75V. Hence, relative

error is,
r = A/As = 1.5/75 = 0.02 = 2%

Hence, limit of measured voltage is,

Aa = As (1 r ) = 75 (1 0.02) = 75 1.5V

Comments

Limiting error = 1% for full scale voltage (150V)

Limiting error = 2% for full scale voltage (75V)
Limiting error = 4% for full scale voltage (37.5V)
%error increases as measured voltage decreases
The measured values should not lie in the lower
third of the range
Important if accuracy defined in terms of F.S.D.

Combination of quantities with limiting

errors
Two or more quantities, each having a limiting
error
Each quantities are combined which is
advantageous to compute limiting error.

Known errors
Error of a quantity (or an instrument) is known
Similar to combinations of limiting errors
Only difference is
Sign of relative errors are given
Ex. 100 + 5

Loading effects
Ideal situation for measurement is
Original signal should remain un-distorted

Introduction of element for measurement cause

Attenuation, waveform distortion, phase shift etc.

The incapability of the system to faithfully

measure, record, or control the input signal
(measurand) in undistorted form is called the
loading effect.

Loading effect due to shunt connected

instruments
Shunt instruments
Voltmeter