LEC 1

Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics
Department of Electrical Engineering
UET, Peshawar.
Semester: III

COURSE OUTLINE
Basic Concepts. The system, control volume, working substance, heat
and work, state and properties, thermodynamic process and cycle.
First law of thermodynamics, first law of thermodynamics for a cycle,
first law of thermodynamics for state change, Internal energy, enthalpy,
specific heats. Ideal gas laws, equations of state.
Properties of pure substances. Phase diagram, use of steam tables.
Thermodynamic processes relationship. Constant volume, constant
pressure, constant temperature, constant enthalpy and general law
processes. Steady state and steady flow process, uniform state and
uniform flow processes. Steady flow energy equation and steady flow
devices.
Second law of thermodynamics, definitions, its applications.
Reversible and irreversible processes. Carnot cycle and thermodynamic
temperature scale, Concept of entropy and its application to flow and
non-flow processes. Enthalpy-entropy diagrams of working fluids.
Thermodynamic cycles, efficiencies, and their applications. Idealized P-V
and T S diagrams of cycles.
Rankine cycle and its application. Difference between direct and
reversed cycles. Concept of open and closed cycles.

COURSE DESCRIPTION

The course describes the basic understanding of

ermodynamics its laws and principles, such as first law
e second law of thermodynamics as well as the concept
enthalpy and entropy. These concepts are necessary fo
e advanced study of thermofluids subjects and their
plication to real world problems.

ASSESSMENT
PARTICIPATION
The course consists of a three-hour lecture per week. Active participation in this course by all students
is required and expected. Attendance for all lectures is strongly advised. Any student whose
attendance is less than 75% will be notified by the University and may be dropped from the course for
insufficient progress or participation.
STUDENT PERFORMANCE EVALUATION / GRADING
Class participation, assignments, quizzes, sessional tests and the final examination will evaluate
student progress.
RECOMMENDED BOOK: Applied thermodynamics by A, Mc conkey

FINAL GRADE
Attendence10%
Quizzes8%
Assignments ....................................................................7%
Mid term Exam25%
Final Examination ..........................................................50%
--------------------------------------------------------Total ..................................................... 100%

Objectives
Identify the unique vocabulary associated with
thermodynamics through the precise definition
of basic concepts to form a sound foundation
for the development of the principles of
thermodynamics.
Review the metric and SI unit systems.
Explain the basic concepts of thermodynamics
such as system, state, state postulate,
equilibrium, process, and cycle.

Thermodynamics

rmodynamics - the science that is concerned with energy, particularly

ergy-in-transit in the forms of heat and work, and those properties o
tems that are related to energy.

hermodynamics can be defined as the science of energy.

nergy can be viewed as the ability to cause changes.

ermodynamics is the science of the relationship between heat, work and

e properties of system. It is concerned with the means necessary to conve
at energy from available sources such fossil fuels into mechanical work.

e name thermodynamics stems from the Greek words therme (heat) and
namis (power), which is most descriptive of the early efforts to convert
at into power.

THERMODYNAMICS AND ENERGY

Thermodynamics: The science of

energy.
Energy: The ability to cause changes.
The name thermodynamics stems from
the Greek words therme (heat) and
dynamis (power).
Conservation of energy principle:
During an interaction, energy can change
from one form to another but the total
amount of energy remains constant.
Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
The first law of thermodynamics: An
expression of the conservation of energy
principle.
The first law asserts that energy is a
thermodynamic property.

Energy cannot be
created or destroyed; it
can only change forms
(the first law).

The second law of thermodynamics:

It asserts that energy has quality as
well as quantity, and actual processes
occur in the direction of decreasing
quality of energy.
Classical thermodynamics: A
macroscopic approach to the study of
thermodynamics that does not require
a knowledge of the behavior of
individual particles.
It provides a direct and easy way to the
solution of engineering problems.
Statistical thermodynamics: A
microscopic approach, based on the
average behavior of large groups of
individual particles.

Conservation of energy
principle for the human
body.

Heat flows in the direction

of decreasing
temperature.

Application Areas of Thermodynamics

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Applications of Thermal
Energy

http://www.nrel.gov

Solar thermal energy and geothermal

energy are just a few applications of
thermal energy in general. Solar thermal
energy is used to heat water in homes
or buildings, swimming pools, and space
heating for buildings. Passive thermal
energy means that no mechanical
equipment is required, much like the
interior of a car heating up in the
summer. Active thermal energy requires
a mechanical device called a heat

Examples of Solar Energy

All images were obtained from the following URL: http://www1.eere.energy.gov

Geothermal Energy
Energy generated from the thermal
energy stored beneath the Earths
surface
Also refers to the heat that is collected
from the atmosphere; for instance, near
the oceans

All applications in nature involve some interaction between energy and matter; thus, it is hard to imagine an area that does not
relate to thermodynamics in some matter. Therefore, developing a good understanding of basic principles of thermodynamics has
long been an essential part of engineering education.
Thermodynamics is commonly encountered in many engineering systems and other aspects of life, and one does not need to go
very far to see some application areas of it.
In fact, one does not need to go anywhere. The heart is constantly pumping blood to all parts of the human body, various energy
conversions occur in trillions of body cells, and the body heat generated is constantly rejected to the environment. The human
comfort is closely tied to the rate of this metabolic heat rejection. We try to control this heat transfer rate by adjusting our clothing
to the environmental conditions.
Other applications of thermodynamics are right where one lives. An ordinary house is, in some respects, an exhibition hall filled with
wonders of thermodynamics. Many ordinary household utensils and appliances are designed, in whole or in part, by using the
principles of thermodynamics. Some examples include the electric or gas range, the heating and air conditioning systems, the
refrigerator, the humidifier, the pressure cooker, the water heater, the shower, the iron, and even the computer, and the TV. On a
large scale, thermodynamics plays a major part in the design and analysis of automotive engines, rockets, jet engines, and
conventional or nuclear power plants, solar collectors, and the design of vehicles from ordinary cars to airplanes.

IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS AND UNITS

Any physical quantity can be characterized by

dimensions.
The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions
are called units.
Some basic dimensions such as mass m,
length L, time t, and temperature T are
selected as primary or fundamental
dimensions, while others such as velocity V,
energy E, and volume V are expressed in
terms of the primary dimensions and are
called secondary dimensions, or derived
dimensions.
Metric SI system: A simple and logical
system based on a decimal relationship
between the various units.

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Basic Concepts of Thermodynamic

stem is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for

y.
mass or region outside the system is called the surroundings.
real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its surroundings
lled the boundary.

e boundary of a system can be fixed or movable.

ote that the boundary is the contact surface shared by both the system an
e surroundings.
athematically speaking, the boundary has zero thickness, and thus it can
ither contain any mass nor occupy any volume in space.

SYSTEMS AND CONTROL VOLUMES

System: A quantity of matter or a region in
space chosen for study.
Surroundings: The mass or region outside
the system
Boundary: The real or imaginary surface
that separates the system from its
surroundings.
The boundary of a system can be fixed or
movable.
Systems may be considered to be closed
or open.

Closed
system
(Control
mass):
A fixed
amount of
mass, and no
mass can
cross its

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An open system (a
control volume) with
one inlet and one exit.

Open system (control volume): A properly

selected region in space.
It usually encloses a device that involves
mass flow such as a compressor, turbine, or
nozzle.
Both mass and energy can cross the
boundary of a control volume.
Control surface: The boundaries of a
control volume. It can be real or imaginary.

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pes of thermodynamic system

1.Closed system or control mass
2.Opens system or control volume
3.Isolated system

ystems may be considered to be closed or open, depending on whether a

xed mass or a fixed volume in space is chosen for study.

osed system (also known as a control mass) consists of a fixed amount of mass
no mass can cross its boundary. That is, no mass can enter or leave a closed
em, as shown in Fig. 116. But energy, in the form of heat or work, can
s the boundary; and the volume of a closed system does not have to be
d.

Isolated system
is is the special form of closed system which has neither mass nor energy
ansfer across the boundary.
here is no interaction between the system and surrounding in form of heat
ork or mass.
r example, a thermos flask, a hot pot; a container, pipe or duct having a
uid wrapped with insulation or lagging, etc.

open system, or a control volume, as it is often called, is a properly

ected region in space. It usually encloses a device that involves
ss flow such as a turbine, or nozzle. Flow through these
evices is best studied by selecting the region within the device as the
ntrol volume. Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control
olume.
Example of open systems are:
car radiator, a turbine, and a compressor

PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM

haracteristic of a system is called a property.Some familiar properties

ressure P, temperature T, volume V, and mass m.
1. Intensive properties
2. Extensive properties
3. Specific properties
s of thermodynamicproperties:
Intensivepropertiesare those that are independent of the mass of a
system, such as
temperature, pressure, and density.
Extensivepropertiesare those whose values depend on the sizeor
extentof the system.
Total mass, total volume and total momentum are some examples of
extensive properties.
An easy way to determine whether a property is intensive or
extensive is to
divide the system into two equal parts with an imaginary partition, as
shown
in Fig. 120. Each part will have the same value of intensive
properties as

THERMODYAMIC STATE

A thermodynamic state is the condition of a system specified by its

properties.
The state of the system at any given instant is determined by the values o
its properties.
The changes in state are due to changes in properties which in turn are
due to the energy transformation.

the state of the system is fixed by the values of the properties of that
system then the question arises how many properties at least are needed
to specify or fix the condition of a system? This question can be resolved
through the state postulate.

PROPERTIES OF A
SYSTEM

Property: Any characteristic of a

system.
Some familiar properties are
pressure P, temperature T, volume
V, and mass m.
Properties are considered to be
either intensive or extensive.
Intensive properties: Those that
are independent of the mass of a
system, such as temperature,
pressure, and density.
Extensive properties: Those
whose values depend on the size
or extentof the system.
Specific properties: Extensive
Criterion to differentiate
properties per unit mass.
intensive and extensive
properties.

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DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Density

Specific
volume

Specific gravity: The

ratio of the density of a
substance to the density
of some standard
substance at a specified
temperature (usually
water at 4C).
Specific weight:
The weight of a unit
volume of a
substance.

Density is
mass per unit
volume;
specific
volume is
volume per
unit mass.
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THE STATE POSTULATE

Only two independent intensive properties are necessary and sufficient

determine (or fix) the state of a system containing simple and single-pha
(homogenous) compressible substance.

The state postulate says that the state of a simple compressible system i
completely specified by two independent, intensive properties.

A compressible substance is one which can be squeezed by the action of

force or pressure and whose density or specific volume varies.

THERMODYNAMIC PHASE

A phase is a quantity of matter that is homogeneous throughout i.e. a

substance that has a uniform physical structure and chemical compositio

For example, water (in the form of solid, it is ice, in the form of liquid it is
water and in the form of vapour it is steam) but two-phase mixture, such
as, solid-liquid, liquid-vapour, etc are heterogeneous in structure, i.e. the
mass is not uniformly distributed. So state and phase are different things

HERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM

ystem is isolated from its surroundings and the properties of the system do not change with respect to time and space, i.e. it is steady and uniform
ughout the system, then the system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium.
libriummeans equality of opposing effects. In other word, a thermodynamic system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium if it satisfies the thre
ditionsof equilibrium
RMAL EQUILIBRIUM
e temperature does not change within the system when the system is isolated from its surroundings, the system is said to be in thermal equilibrium
CHANICAL EQUILIBRIUM
changes in pressure (or force) occur within the system when it is isolated from its surroundings, the system is said to be in mechanical equilibrium.
MICAL EQUILIBRIUM
chemical composition of the mixture (system) does not change with time when it is isolated from its surroundings, the system is said to be in chem
ibrium.
Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states. The word equilibrium implies a state of balance. In an equilibrium state
there are no unbalanced
potentials(or driving forces) within the system. A system in equilibrium experiences no changes when it is isolated from
its surroundings.
There are many types of equilibrium, and a system is not in thermodynamic equilibrium unless the conditions of all the
relevant types of equilibrium
are satisfied. For example, a system is in thermal equilibrium if the temperature is the same throughout the entire
system, as shown in Fig.
124. That is, the system involves no temperature differential, which is the driving force for heat flow. Mechanical
equilibrium is related to pressure,
and a system is in mechanical equilibrium if there is no change in pressure at any point of the system with time. However,
the pressure may vary within
the system with elevation as a result of gravitational effects. For example, the higher pressure at a bottom layer is
balanced by the extra weight it must
carry, and, therefore, there is no imbalance of forces. The variation of pressure as a result of gravity in most
thermodynamic systems is relatively small
and usually disregarded. If a system involves two phases, it is in phase equilibrium when the mass of each phase reaches
an equilibrium level and
stays there. Finally, a system is in chemical equilibrium if its chemical composition does not change with time, that is, no
chemical reactions occur.
A system will not be in equilibrium unless all the relevant equilibrium criteria are satisfied.

THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS

hange that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to

er is called a process,and the series of states through which a system
es during a process is called the pathof the process
1.Constant volume process
2.Constant pressure process
3.Constant thermodynamic
temperature process
allyencountered
processes are:
4.Adiabatic process, etc.
The process may be either:
A reversible
1.
(ideal or hypothetical or theoretical) or an irreversible (real, actual or experimental).
An expansion
2.
or compression. (In constant volume process there is no expansion or compression.)
A heating
3.
or cooling. (in the case of adiabatic process there is no heat transfer.)
A steady
4. (independent of time) or an unsteady (dependent on time).
A uniform
5.
(independent of space) or a non-uniform (dependent on space).

STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM

Thermodynamics deals with

equilibrium states.
Equilibrium: A state of balance.
In an equilibrium state there are no
unbalanced potentials (or driving
forces) within the system.
Thermal equilibrium: If the
temperature is the same throughout
the entire system.
Mechanical equilibrium: If there is
no change in pressure at any point
of the system with time.
Phase equilibrium: If a system
involves two phases and when the
mass of each phase reaches an
equilibrium level and stays there.
Chemical equilibrium: If the
chemical composition of a system
does not change with time, that is,
no chemical reactions occur.

A system at two different states.

A closed system reaching

thermal equilibrium.

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The State
Postulate

The number of properties

required to fix the state of a
system is given by the state
postulate:
The state of a simple
compressible system is
completely specified by
two independent,
intensive properties
The state of nitrogen is
fixed by two
independent, intensive
properties.
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PROCESSES AND CYCLES

Process: Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to
another.
Path: The series of states through which a system passes during a process.
To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final states,
as well as the path it follows, and the interactions with the surroundings.
Quasistatic or quasi-equilibrium process: When a process proceeds in such
a manner that the system remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state
at all times.

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Process diagrams plotted by

employing thermodynamic properties
as coordinates are very useful in
visualizing the processes.
Some common properties that are
used as coordinates are temperature
T, pressure P, and volume V (or
specific volume v).
The prefix iso- is often used to
designate a process for which a
particularproperty remains constant.
Isothermal process: A process
during which the temperature T
remains constant.
Isobaric process: A process during
which the pressure P remains
constant.
Isochoric (or isometric) process: A
process during which the specific
volume v remains constant.
Cycle: A process during which the
initial and final states are identical.

The P-V diagram of a

compression process.

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The Steady-Flow Process

The term steady implies no

change with time. The
opposite of steady is
unsteady, or transient.
A large number of
engineering devices operate
for long periods of time
under the same conditions,
and they are classified as
steady-flow devices.
Steady-flow process: A
process during which a fluid
flows through a control
volume steadily.
Steady-flow conditions can
be closely approximated by
devices that are intended for
continuous operation such
as turbines, pumps, boilers,
condensers, and heat
exchangers or power plants
or refrigeration systems.

During a
steady-flow
process, fluid
properties
within the
control volume
may change
with position
but not with
time.

Under steady-flow conditions, the

mass and energy contents of a
control volume remain constant.

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