Research Methodology

Assessing the Methodology

of the Study
4 mains aspects:
design
data collection
sampling
data analysis

If inappropriate methodology is used,

or if appropriate methodology is used
poorly, the results of a study could
be misleading.

Design
Descriptive and associational questions need designs that only specify
when the data will be collected from one group of interest.
Causal questions are usually answered by designs where:
the intervention is applied to one group of two comparable groups, and
measures of expected outcomes are made for both groups at the end of the
intervention;
repeated measures of the outcomes of interest are made several times before
and after the intervention is applied to one group; or,
for a group in which some units have received the intervention (perhaps
varying levels of it) and some units have not, data is collected at one point in
time on suspected causal variables, on the outcome variables of interest, and
on various other variables that might have affected the outcomes of interest,
and then the data are analyzed to determine whether the suspected causal
elements actually had an effect on the outcomes.

Benefit-cost analyses require the designs for causal questions plus

collection of data that permits calculations of the value of the benefits
as well as the costs.

Data Collection in Research

Types of Data
Primary Data- Primary data is the data which is
collected first hand specially for the purpose of
study. It is collected for addressing the problem at
hand. Thus, primary data is original data collected
by researcher first hand.
Secondary data- Secondary data is the data that
have been already collected by and readily
available from other sources. Such data are
cheaper and more quickly obtainable than the
primary data and also may be available when
primary data can not be obtained at all.

Data Collection Methods

Qualitative Research- Qualitative Research is generally
undertaken to develop an initial understanding of the problem.
It is non statistical in nature. It uses an inductive method, that
is, data relevant to some topics are collected and grouped into
appropriate meaningful categories. The explanations are
emerged from the data itself. It is used in exploratory research
design and descriptive research also. Qualitative data comes
into a variety of forms like interview transcripts; documents,
diaries and notes made while observing.

There are two main methods for collecting Qualitative

data

Direct Collection Method-When the data is

collected directly, it makes use of
disguised method. Purpose of data
collection is not known. This method
makes use of Focus Groups
Depth Interview
Case Study

Indirect Collection-Method
Projective Techniques

 Quantitative Research- Quantitative

Research quantifies the data and
generalizes the results from the
sample to the population.
In Quantitative Research, data can be
colleted by two methods
Survey Method
Observation Method

Data Analysis
Analyzing information involves examining it in
ways that reveal the relationships, patterns,
trends, etc. that can be found within it. That may
mean subjecting it to statistical operations that
can tell you not only what kinds of relationships
seem to exist among variables, but also to what
level you can trust the answers youre getting. It
may mean comparing your information to that
from other groups (a control or comparison
group, statewide figures, etc.), to help draw
some conclusions from the data.

ORGANIZATION OF THE DATA

COLLECTED
Enter any necessary data into the computer. This may mean simply typing
comments, descriptions, etc., into a word processing program, or entering
various kinds of information (possibly including audio and video) into a
database, spreadsheet, a GIS (Geographic Information Systems) program,
or some other type of software or file.
Transcribe any audio- or videotapes. This makes them easier to work with
and copy, and allows the opportunity to clarify any hard-to-understand
passages of speech.
Score any tests and record the scores appropriately.
Sort your information in ways appropriate to your interest. This may
include sorting by category of observation, by event, by place, by
individual, by group, by the time of observation, or by a combination or
some other standard.
When possible, necessary, and appropriate, transform qualitative into
quantitative data. This might involve, for example, counting the number of
times specific issues were mentioned in interviews, or how often certain
behaviors were observed.

Sampling
Purposes:
o It reduces the costs and time required to
do the research;
o It often improves the quality of
information by allowing more intensive
data collection than would otherwise be
possible; and,
o it reduces the burden on respondents.

Phases of Sampling
1. Specification of a population (or universe) to which you wish to generalize.
One cannot properly make inferences beyond the population that was sampled.
2. Identification of a sampling frame of the population which lists all the persons,
families, etc. in the desired population. Often no perfect frame exists, and
available or compiled lists include some people not in the population, and perhaps
some people are listed more than once.
3. Drawing the sample. Quantitative research using inferential statistics requires
random sampling; qualitative research usually uses non-random procedures.
4. Securing the needed data from the sample. Usually not all people included in a
sample can be contacted and are willing to participate in the data collection.
Some that do participate will fail to provide some of the needed data, either
because they do not know the information or they do not want to divulge it.
Response rates in surveys and long-term follow-ups of experiments are often very
low (15-30 percent), and often it is difficult to ascertain whether they are
representative of the other 70-85 percent of the people.

Sampling Techniques
1. Non-probability biased

2. Probability w/o prejudice/bias

o
o
o
o

Simple random
Systematic random
Use of table of random numbers
Stratified samplin

Ways to analyze data besides

sampling
Simple counting, graphing and visual inspection of frequency or rates of behavior,
events, etc., over time.
Using visual inspection of patterns over time to identify discontinuities (marked
increases, decreases) in the measures over time (sessions, weeks, months).
Calculating the mean (average), median (midpoint), and/or mode (most frequent)
of a series of measurements or observations. What was the average blood
pressure, for instance, of people who exercised 30 minutes a day at least five days
a week, as opposed to that of people who exercised two days a week or less?
Using qualitative interviews, conversations, and participant observation to observe
(and track changes in) the people or situation. Journals can be particularly
revealing in this area because they record peoples experiences and reflections
over time.
Finding patterns in qualitative data. If many people refer to similar problems or
barriers, these may be important in understanding the issue, determining what
works or doesnt work and why, or more.
Comparing actual results to previously determined goals or benchmarks. One
measure of success might be meeting a goal for planning or program
implementation, for example.

Ways to Analyze Data

Simple counting, graphing and visual inspection of frequency or rates of behavior,
events, etc., over time.
Using visual inspection of patterns over time to identify discontinuities (marked
increases, decreases) in the measures over time (sessions, weeks, months).
Calculating the mean (average), median (midpoint), and/or mode (most frequent)
of a series of measurements or observations. What was the average blood
pressure, for instance, of people who exercised 30 minutes a day at least five days
a week, as opposed to that of people who exercised two days a week or less?
Using qualitative interviews, conversations, and participant observation to observe
(and track changes in) the people or situation. Journals can be particularly
revealing in this area because they record peoples experiences and reflections
over time.
Finding patterns in qualitative data. If many people refer to similar problems or
barriers, these may be important in understanding the issue, determining what
works or doesnt work and why, or more.
Comparing actual results to previously determined goals or benchmarks. One
measure of success might be meeting a goal for planning or program
implementation, for example.

Use of Statistics
Measures of Central Tendency- define
typical quality/trait
1. Arithmetic Mean
2. Weighted Mean
*numerical value obtained from these
will represent the prevailing
characteristics of the
respondents/population/sample

 Dispersion how far a set of data is

from each other
1. Standard Deviation- indicates
variabililty of a set of data

Tools for testing hypothesis

INFERENTIAL STATISTICS gives
information about a population by
drawing samples from it

Finding difference bet. Samples

A. t-Test
For dependent means
For independent means
B. z- test
C. ANOVA

Test of Relationships
Pearson Product-Moment Correlation
Coefficient
Spearmans Rank-Order Correlation