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Remote Sensing-I
Remote Sensing is the science and art of
obtaining information about an object,
area or phenomenon through the analysis
of data acquired by a device that is not in
contact with the object, area or
phenomenon under investigation
Planks law
Planks law explains the photo electric effect. Planks law
defines the spectral exitance of a black body (Henderson
1970)
M = (C1/5) (exp(C2/T) 1)
Where, C1=3.742*10-16watts per m2
C2=1.4388*10-2mK
(nu)=wavelength in micrometers
T=temperature in kelvin
M=spectral exitance per unit wavelength
The longer the wavelength, the lower is the energy
content
Remote Sensing-II
Scattering
-Atmospheric scattering is unpredictable diffusion
of radiation by particles in the atmosphere.
-Rayleigh scatter is common when radiation
interacts with atmospheric molecules and other
tiny particles that are much smaller in diameter
than the wavelength of the interacting radiation.
The effect of Rayleigh scatter is inversely
proportional to the fourth power of wavelength.
Hence there is a much stronger tendency for short
wavelengths to be scattered by this scattering
mechanism than long wavelengths.
Absorption
In contrast to scatter, atmospheric absorption results in
the effective loss of energy to atmospheric constituients.
This normally involves absorption of energy at a given
wavelength. The most efficient absorbers of solar
radiation in this regard are water vapour, carbon dioxide,
and ozone. Because these gases tend to absorb
electromagnetic energy in specific wavelength bands,
they strongly influence where we look spectrally with
any given remote sensing system. The wavelength
ranges in which the atmosphere is particularly
transmissive of energy are reffered to as atmospheric
windows.
Diffuse
reflections
contain
spectral
information on the color of the reflecting
surface, where as specular reflections do
not.
Hence in remote sensing, we are most
often interested in measuring the diffuse
reflectance properties of terrain features.
Parameters of a Sensor
In remote sensing, sensor is a device used to
record the reflected electromagnetic radiations
from the objects on the earths surface. The
sensor converts these radiations into electrical
signals.
In the design of an optimal remote sensor, an
ideal set of system parameters is an essential
requisite.
In a multispectral sensor system, these
parameters have strong interrelationships with
one another.
Resolution
Spatial resolution
The minimum detectable area on the ground by a detector
placed on a sensor is called the spatial resolution.
The spatial resolution is understood as the projection of a
detector element (which defines the instantaneous field of view
of a detector, i.e., IFOV) on to the ground.
The swath is a related feature of spatial resolution and IFOV of a
sensor, which can be explained as the width of a strip of terrain
recorded by a sensor.
In simple words, the spatial resolution can be defined as the
smallest object on the ground identifiable on the image.
Spectral resolution
The smallest amount of spectral change that
can be detected by a sensor is called the
spectral resolution. The finer the spectral
channels, the better is the spectral resolution
Radiometric resolution
The presence of grey levels defines the
radiometric resolution. The more are the grey
levels, the better is the radiometric resolution.
For example in IRS-LISS II the radiometric
resolution is 128(0-127)
Temporal resolution
The temporal resolution is characterized by
the smaller period of repetitive coverage. For
example SPOT gives revisit time i.e. in four
days, one particular area can be revisited.
Sensors
In remote sensing, the acquisition of data
is dependent upon the sensor system
used. Various remote sensing platforms
are equipped with different sensor
systems. Sensor is a device that receives
electromagnetic radiation, converts it into
a signal and presents it in a form suitable
for obtaining information about the land or
earth resource as used by an information
gathering system.
Thermal system:
sensors which operate in infrared and part of
microwave region are called thermal sensors.
These are based on the principle of StefanBoltzmann law of radiation, and utilize the
scanning
method
for
recording
electromagnetic energy. Thermal images are
generally found to have large distortions.
Optical-mechanical scanners:
Such scanners have a combination of beam
splitters and filters for spectral band selection.
The imaging system has the advantage that
any set of desired spectral bands can be
selected with appropriate filter and detector
combinations.
The most widely used sensor in this category
is the MSS on board LANDSAT series. MSS
has four spectral bands, covering from 0.5 to
1.1m region.
Microwave
sensors
have
a
distinct
advantages because they are unaffected by
atmospheric conditions and are thus able to
penetrate smoke, clouds, haze and snow.
Under this sensor system, plan position
indicator(PPI),
side
looking
airborne
RADAR(SLAR) and Synthetic Aperture
RADAR(SAR) can be grouped.
Mission
OPERATIONAL
SARAL
Date of Launch
Launch Vehicle
Payloads
Data Availability
PSLV-C20
RISAT-1
Megha-Tropiques
PSLV-C19
PSLV-C18
RESOURCESAT-2
PSLV-C16
Oceansat-2
23.09.2009
PSLV-C14
Ka band Altimeter,
ALTIKA
ARGOS Data
Collection System
Solid State C-band
Transponder (SCBT)
SAR
MADRAS, SAPHIR,
ScaRaB and ROSA
LISS III,LISS IV
Mx,AWiFS
OCM,SCAT
RISAT-2
IMS-1
20.04.2009
28.04.2008
PSLV-C12
PSLV-C9
SAR
IMS-1 Mx, HySI
CARTOSAT-2A
CARTOSAT - 2
CARTOSAT-1
Resourcesat-1(IRSP6)
Tech. Exp. Satellite
(TES)
DECOMMISSIONED
Oceansat -1 (IRS-P4)
PSLV-C9
PSLV-C7
PSLV-C6
PSLV-C5
22.10.2001
PSLV-C3
PAN
PAN
PAN
LISS III,LISS IV Mx,
AWiFS
PAN
26.05.1999
PSLV-C2
OCM, MSMR
IRS-1D
29.09.1997
PSLV-C1
IRS-P3
21.03.1996
PSLV-D3
WiFS,MOS
altitude: 816-818 km
inclination: 98.6 degrees
orbit: sun-synchronous polar
orbit period: 101 minutes
revisit time (LISS-4 et AWIFS): 5 days
swath width : 23,9 km 70,3 km (LISS-IV) ; 140 km
(LISS-III); 740 km (AWIFS)
satellites:
IRS-P6/Resourcesat-1 (17/10/2003 operational)
PAN
Amsterdam Airport
1998 ANTRIX, SI, Euromap Neustrelitz
LISS
San Francisco Bay - Courtesy of National Point of Contact,
www.npoc.nl
LISS-III sensor
The LISS-III (Linear Imaging Self
Scanning Sensor) sensor is an optical
sensor working in four spectral bands
(green, red, near infrared and short wave
infrared). It covers a 141km-wide swath
with a resolution of 23 metres in all
spectral bands.
Band
Spectral band
Resolution
0,52 - 0,59 m
23 x 23 m
0,62 - 0,68 m
23 x 23 m
0,77 - 0,86 m
23 x 23 m
1,55 - 1,70 m
23 x 23 m
LISS-IV sensor
LISS-IV can work either in panchromatic or in
multispectral mode with the same bands as
LISS-III (except SWIR). However, the resolution
is much better (5.8 m). For Resourcesat-1, the
swath width varies from 23.9 km in multispectral
mode to 70.3 km in panchromatic mode. For
Resourcesat-2, the multispectral swath is
enhanced to 70 km. The linear array sensor can
be steered up to 26 degrees across-track,
enabling stereoscopic imaging.
Mode
Spectral band
Resolution
Panchromatic
0,50 - 0,75 m
5,8 x 5,8 m
Mode
Band
Spectral band
Resolution
Multispectral
0,52 - 0,59 m
5,8 x 5,8 m
0,62 - 0,68 m
5,8 x 5,8 m
0,77 - 0,86 m
5,8 x 5,8 m
AWiFS sensor
AWIFS (Advanced Wide Field Sensor) is
an optical sensor with intermediate spatial
resolution.
WiFS
Greece
1998 ANTRIX, SI, Euromap Neustrelitz
Band
Spectral band
Resolution
0,52 - 0,59 m
56 x 56 m
0,62 - 0,68 m
56 x 56 m
0,77 - 0,86 m
56 x 56 m
1,55 - 1,70 m
56 x 56 m
Fundamentals of AIRPHOTO
Interpretation(Visual Interpretation)
Aerial photographs contain a detailed
record of features on the ground at the
time of exposure. A photo interpreter
systematically examines the photos and
frequently, other supporting materials such
as maps and reports of field observations.
Based on this study an interpretation is
made as to the physical nature of objects
and phenomena appearing in the
photographs.
Elements of Airphoto
Interpretation
Most applications consider the following basic
characteristics
Shape
Size
Pattern
Tone(or hue)
Texture
Shadows
Site
Association
Shape:
Shape refers to the general form,
configuration or outline of individual objects.
In the case of stereoscopic photographs, the
object height also defines its shape.
The shape of some objects is so distinctive
that their images may be identified solely from
this criterion.
Size:
Size of the objects on photographs must be
considered in the context of the photoscale
Pattern:
Pattern relates to the spatial arrangement of
objects.
The repetition of certain general forms or
relationships is a characteristic of many
objects, both natural and constructed, gives
objects a pattern that aids the photo
interpreter in recognizing them.
Tone(or hue):
Tone (or hue) refers to the relative brightness
or color of objects on photographs.
Texture:
Texture is the frequency of tonal change on the
photographic image.
Texture is produced by an aggregation of unit features
that may be too small to be discerned individually on
the photographs such as tree leaves and leaf
shadows.
It determines the overall visual smoothness or
coarseness of image features.
As the scale of the photograph is reduced, the texture
of any given object or area becomes progressively
finer and ultimately disappears.
Shadows:
Shadows are important to interpretations in
two opposing respects:
(1) The shape or outline of a shadow affords an
impression of the profile view of objects (which
aids interpretation) and
(2) Objects within shadows reflect little light and
are difficult to discern on photographs (which
hinders interpretation)
Site:
Site refers to topographic location and is a
particularly important aid in the identification
of vegetation types.
For example, certain tree species would be
expected to occur on well-drained upland
sites, whereas other tree species would be
expected to occur on poorly drained lowland
sites.
Association:
Association refers to the occurrence of certain
features in relation to others.
For example, a ferris wheel might be difficult
to identify if standing in a field near a barn, but
would be easy to identify if standing in a field
near a barn, but would be easy to identify if in
an area recognized as an amusement park.
Principles of Landform
Identification and Evaluation
Various terrain characteristics are important to soil
scientist, geologists, geographers, civil engineers, urban
and regional planners, landscape architects, real estate
developers, and others who wish to evaluate the
suitability of the terrain for various land uses.
Because terrain conditions strongly influence the
capability of the land to support various species of
vegetation, an understanding of airphoto interpretation
for terrain evaluation is also important for botanists,
foresters, wildlife ecologists, and others concerned with
vegetation mapping and evaluation.
Topography
Each landform and bedrock type described
has its own characteristic topographic form
including a typical size and shape.
There is often a distinct topographic change
at the boundary between two different
landforms.
The specific amount of vertical exaggeration
observed in any given stereopair is a function
of the geometric conditions under which the
photographs are viewed and taken.
Erosion
Gullies are the smallest drainage features that can be
seen on aerial photographs and may be as small as a
meter wide and a hundred meters long.
Gullies result from the erosion of unconsolidated
material by runoff and develop where rainfall cannot
adequately percolate into the ground, but instead
collects and flows across the surface in small rivulets.
These initial rivulets enlarge and take on a particular
shape characteristic of the material in which they are
formed.
As illustrated in figure, short gullies with Vshaped cross sections tend to develop in
sand and gravel
Gullies with U-shaped cross sections tend to
develop in silty soils
Long gullies with gently rounded cross
sections tend to develop in silty clay soils.
Photo tone
The term photo tone refers to the brightness at any
point on a panchromatic photograph.
The absolute value of the photo tone depends not
only on certain terrain characteristics but also on
photographic factors such as film-filter combination,
exposure and photographic processing.
Photo tone also depends on meteorological and
climatological factors such as atmospheric haze, sun
angle, and cloud shadows. Because of the effect of
these non-terrain related factors, photo interpretation
for terrain evaluation must rely on an analysis of
relative tone values, rather than absolute tone values.
Atmospheric Influences on
spectral response patterns
In addition to being influenced by temporal
and spatial effects, spectral response
patterns
are
influenced
by
the
atmosphere.
The energy recorded by a sensor is
always modified to some extent by the
atmosphere between the sensor and the
ground
2. Image Enhancement
These procedures are applied to image data
in order to more efficiently display or record
the data for subsequent visual interpretation.
Normally image enhancement involves
techniques for
increasing the visual
distinctions between features in a scene.
The objective is to create new images from
the original image data in order to increase
the amount of information that can be visually
interpreted from the data.
3. Image classification:
To classify the image into classes.
To replace visual analysis of the image data
with quantitative techniques for automating
the identification of features in a scene.
This normally involves the analysis of
multispectral image data and the application
of statistically based decision rules for
determining the land cover identity of each
pixel in an image.
Biophysical modelling:
The objective of biophysical modelling is to
relate quantitatively the digital data recorded by
a remote sensing system to biophysical features
and phenomena measured on the ground. For
example, remote sensed data might be used to
estimate such varied parameters as crop yield,
pollution concentration, or water depth. Likewise,
remotely sensed data are often used in concert
with GIS techniques to facilitate environmental
modelling.