Petroleum

Geology

Objectives

Petroleum Geology
Be able to
Discuss basic elements of geology
Identify major rock types
Describe basic sedimentary environments
Describe the origin of petroleum
Identify trap types
Define and describe the important reservoir
properties, porosity and permeability

Outline

Petroleum Geology
Plate tectonics
The rock cycle and geologic time
Rock types
Sedimentary environments
The origin of fossil fuels
Migration and accumulation
Reservoir traps
Reservoir properties

Crustal Plates

Plate boundaries
Relative velocities (cm/yr)

Continental crust
Oceanic crust

Plate Tectonics and Mantle

Convection
Lithosphere forms from
hot rising magma

Lithosphere cools
as it spreads

Asthenosphere
Cooled lithosphere sinks

Asthenosphere

the upper layer of the earth's mantle, below the lithosphere, in which
there is relatively low resistance to plastic flow and convection is thought
to occur.
Because the downgoing slab of lithosphere is heavier than the plastic
asthenosphere below, it tends to sink passively; and the older the
lithosphere, the steeper the dip

Basic Elements of Plate

Tectonics

DIVERGENT BOUNDARY
Mid-ocean ridge

CONVERGENT BOUNDARY
Plate subduction

Sea floor spreading

Lithosphere

Volcanism

Mountain
building

Deep-sea
trench

Oceanic
crust

Continental
crust

Magma rising

Asthenosphere
Magma forming

Earthquake centres

Rock Cycle
Weathering and erosion
Deposition in oceans
and on continents
Uplift

Sediments

Increasing
temperature
and pressure

Uplift
Uplift

Igneous
rocks

Sedimentary
rocks

Heat &
pressure

Heat &
pressure

Cooling
Melting
Magma

Burial and
lithification

Metamorphic
rocks

Geologic Time Scale

0
0.01
1.6
5.3
24
37
57
66

Epoch

Period

Recent
Pleistocene
Pliocene
Miocene
Oligocene
Eocene
Paleocene

Era

Eon

Quaternary
Tertiary

Cenozoic
Phanerozoic

144
208
245
286
360
408
438
505
570

Cretaceous
Jurassic
Triassic
Permian
Carboniferous
Devonian
Ordovician
Silurian
Cambrian

Mesozoic

Paleozoic

Proterozoic

Geologic Time Scale - Biostratigraphy

Jurassic period

Triassic period

Permian period
Pennsylvanian period
Mississippian period

245 m.y
146 m.y 208 m.y

290 m.y

363 m.y

1 b.y

65 m.y

510 m.y

57 m.y
570 m.y

35 m.y
23 m.y
5 m.y
0.01 m.y

Holocene epoch

ERA
PERIOD
EPOCH

Devonian
period

323 m.y

4.6 billion
years ago

409 m.y
439 m.y

Silurian
period
2 b.y
Evolution
of cells with
nucleus
3 b.y First
fossil
cells

4 b.y Oldest rocks

dated on Earth

Rock Types

Classification of Rocks

Rock-forming Source of
process
material

IGNEOU
S

SEDIMENTARY

METAMORPHIC

Melting of rocks in hot,

deep crust and
upper mantle

Weathering and
erosion of rocks
exposed at surface

Rocks under high

temperatures
and pressures in
deep crust

Crystallization
(Solidification of melt)

Sedimentation, burial
and lithification

Recrystallization in
solid state of new
minerals

Igneous Rocks
Basalt

Gabbro

Examples

Rhyolite

Granite

Metamorphic Rocks
Examples

Mica schist

Marble

Gneiss

Slate

Quartzite

Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

Conglomerate

Breccia

Examples

Sandstone

Shale

Sedimentary Environments

Clastic Sedimentary Environments

Environment

Agent Of Transportation
Deposition

Sediments

Alluvial

Rivers

Sand, gravel, mud

Lake

Lake currents, waves

Sand, mud

Desert

Wind

Sand, dust

Glacial

Ice

Sand, gravel, mud

Delta

River + waves, tides

Sand, mud

Beach

Waves, tides

Sand, gravel

Shallow shelf

Waves, tides

Sand, mud

Deep sea

Ocean currents, settling

Mud

Sedimentary Rock Types

Relative abundance

Sandstone
and conglomerate
~11%
Limestone and
dolomite
~13%

Siltstone, mud
and shale
~75%

Sedimentary Environments
Glacier
Lake

Tidal flat
Desert
River
Delta

Con
tine
ntal

Organic reef
Continental shelf
Beach
Continental slope

Deep sea

mar
gin

Marine Deposits
Old
mountain
belt

Coastal
plain

Alluvial
plain sands
Beach
sands

Shallow water
marine sands

Sea level

Slope, slumps
and landslides

Continental
shelf
Continental
slope

Submarine
fan turbidites

Continental rise

Abyssal plain
turbidites
Abyssal plain

Beach Profile
Surf
zone

Swash
zone

High-tide
shoreline

Dune
belt

Low-tide
shoreline

Offshore

Foreshore

Dipping strata

Backshore

River Estuary
Major distributary channel
Salt marsh
Bar
Shallow
bay

ne
Fi

nd
a
s

d
an

t
sil

l ts
i
S

d
an

ys
a
cl

ne
Fi

General structure
of the Mississippi Delta

s
ay
l
c

d
an

s
ud

Turbidity Current
Sediments draped
over edge of slope

Land

Sea level

Effective depth of wave action

Shelf

Clear still water

Turbidity current

Slope

Slumps on slope,
triggered by earthquake,
generate turbidity
currents that flow down
slope to abyssal plain
where they come to rest
Rise
Abyssal plain

Sedimentary sorting
lateral & vertical

Fan Deposition

Example

Alluvial sedimentation

Dune Ripple Formation

Wind
Slip
face
(a) Saltating and rolling grains land
on slip face

(b) Unstable accumulation build up

(c) Accumulation cascades down to

base, advancing the dune

Compression of streamlines
over dune increases velocity

Fossil Dunes
Sediment sorting
Constant wind
force
Constant wind
direction

Major Chemical and Biochemical

Sedimentary Environments
Environment

Agent of Precipitation

Sediments

Carbonate

Shelled organisms, inorganic

precipitation from seawater

Carbonate sands
and muds, reefs

Evaporite

Evaporation of seawater

Gypsum, halite

Deep sea

Shelled organisms

Silica sediment

Swamp

Vegetation

Peat

(reef, bank,
deep sea, etc.)

Limestone
SEM

Foraminiferal ooze

Lagoon

The Origin of Fossil Fuels

Formation of Hydrocarbons
Organic Theory
Sea level

Organic material dies

and falls to the bottom
of seas and lakes

Formation of Hydrocarbons
Organic Theory
Sea level

It forms an
organic-rich
ooze

Formation of Hydrocarbons
Organic Theory
Sea level

The ooze loses oxygen to

form hydrocarbons

Formation of Hydrocarbons
Organic Theory
Sea level

During subsequent compaction,

the hydrocarbons migrate through
nearby porous rocks into the
reservoir

Hydrocarbon Maturation
0
1

Hydrocarbon maturity

60
Initial maturity
(zone of oil
generation)

80

Mature & post

mature (high
temperature methane)

165
180

Heavy
hydrocarbons
Light
hydrocarbons
Methane

Oil

115
130

4
5

Biogenic
(early)
methane

Immature

2
3

Max. paleo Hydrocarbon

product
-temp. (C)

Condensate/
wet gas
High
temperature
methane

Migration and Accumulation

Generation, Migration, and

Trapping of Hydrocarbons

Fault
(impermeable)

Oil/water
contact (OWC)
Migration route
Seal

Hydrocarbon
accumulation
in the
reservoir rock
Top of maturity
Source rock

Reservoir
rock

From Source to Reservoir

SOURCE
Rock Types
Shales 65%
Carbonates 21%
Marl 12%
Coal 2%

MIGRATION

Compaction
Aquathermal pressure
Buoyancy
Hydrodynamic regime

RESERVOIR
Rock Types
Porosity
Permeability

Reservoir Traps

Structural Hydrocarbon Traps

Fracture

Oil

Trap
Oil/Gas
Seal Contact

Fracture Basement

Oil / Gas

Gas

Fold Trap

Closure

Oil
Oil/Water
Contact

Sand
Shale

Fault Trap

(modified from Bjorlykke, 1989)

Fold Terminology

Anticline
Syncline

Youngest
rock
Oldest rock

Folding

Example

Anticline

Example

Anza-Borrego, California

Overturned Folds
Example

Faulting (normal faults)

Example

Kabab Canyon, Utah

Faults & Folds

900 m

Example

Chulitna - Terranes / N Wrangellia / Alaska

Stratigraphic Hydrocarbon Traps

Unconformity

Pinch out

Uncomformity

Oil/Gas

Oil/Gas

Channel Pinch Out

Oil/Gas

(modified from Bjorlykke, 1989)

Unconventional Traps
Meteoric
Water

Asphalt Trap

Biodegraded
Oil/Asphalt
Partly
Biodegraded Oil

Water
Hydrodynamic Trap

Hydrostatic
Head

Shale
Water

Oil
(modified from Bjorlykke, 1989)

Transform Fault
rm
sfo
an
Tr
ult
Fa

Trench

Fault
Locus of
earthquake

Lateral sliding of plates

San Andreas Fault, USA

Transform fault
Sliding plate boundary

Diapirism
Faulting

Folding

Salt

Reservoir Properties

Conditions for Commercial

Oil Accumulation
There must be an organic-rich source rock
to generate the oil and/or gas
The source rock must have been heated
sufficiently to yield its petroleum
There must be a reservoir to contain the
expelled hydrocarbons. The reservoir
must have porosity and permeability.

Conditions for Commercial

Oil Accumulation (contd)
The reservoir must be sealed by an
impermeable cap rock to prevent the
upward escape of petroleum to the earths
surface.
Source, reservoir, and seal must be
arranged in such a way as to trap the
petroleum.

The Reservoir
A reservoir is a porous rock which contains fluids
The reservoir has porosity and permeability

Cap rock

Gas
Oil
Water

Reservoir
Source

Migrating hydrocarbons

Sedimentation and Diagenesis

Grains settle to the
bottom of the
sedimentary basin

grains

fluid

Increased pressure
and temperature
causes water to be
expelled

grains are
closer
together

Consolidation occurs
to form the rock

some material
dissolves and
is redeposited
as cement

fluid in
pore spaces

Sandstone Thin Section

Quartz grains bonded

by calcite cement

Reservoir Rock Properties

Porosity to retain fluid AND
Permeability to allow the fluid to move

unconnected
pore spaces

flow path

Permeability is a dynamic property

that changes during sedimentation

Definition of Porosity
Porosity (fraction of a unit volume
occupied by the pores

fluid

Pores

Matrix

total

Porosity
Porosity depends on grain packing, not grain size
Rocks with different grain sizes can have the same
percentage porosity

Rhombohedral packing
Pore space = 26 % of total volume

Cubic packing
Pore space = 47 % of total volume

Permeability
The rate of fluid flow through a reservoir
depends on
Pressure drop
Fluid viscosity
Permeability
Permeability is a measure of the conductivity of
a reservoir rock to fluid flow
Large grains lead to high permeability and
large flow rates
Small grains lead to low permeability and
small flow rates
Permeability and porosity are related

Darcys Law
p2

p1

L
q
Direction of flow

q
L
k

A ( p1 p 2)
k = permeability
(measured in darcies)

L = length
q = flow rate
p1, p2 = pressures
A = area perpendicular to flow
= viscosity

Fluid Saturation
Fluid saturation is defined as the fraction of pore
volume occupied by a given fluid

V
saturation
V

specific fluid

Definitions
Sw = water saturation

pore space

So = oil saturation
Sg = gas saturation
Sh = hydrocarbon saturation = S o + Sg

Saturation
Amount of water per unit volume = Sw
Amount of hydrocarbon per unit volume = (1 - Sw)

(1-Sw)
Sw

Hydrocarbon

Water
Matrix

Reservoir Pressure
Overburden pressure is caused by the
pressure of rock. Transmitted by grain to
grain contact. Average = 1 psi/ft.
Fluid pressure is caused by weight of
column of fluids in the pore spaces.
Average = 0.465 psi/ft (saline water).

Overpressured Reservoirs
Sands and clays are commonly interbedded.
As the sediments are buried, the clays compact
and lose porosity.
Normally, excess fluids from the pores move
into the sands and escape to the surface.
In some situations, however, the fluids cannot
escape, and the reservoir becomes
overpressured.
A reservoir is considered to be overpressured if
its pressure gradient is greater than about
0.465 psi/ft.

Reading Assignment
Petroleum Geology
SPE 28574, Structural and Hydrocarbon
Histories of the Ivishak (Sadlerochit)
Reservoir, Prudhoe Bay Field
SPE 28575, Rock Types, Depositional
History, and Diagenetic Effects:
Sadlerochit Reservoir, Prudhoe Bay Field

Summary
Petroleum Geology
In this section, we have discussed:
The basic elements of plate tectonics, the rock
cycle, geologic time, and biostratigraphy
Major rock types
Basic sedimentary environments
The origin of petroleum
Structural, stratigraphic, and non-conventional
traps
Important reservoir properties, e.g., porosity and
permeability

Exercises
Petroleum Geology

Exercise 1
What are the basic elements of plate
tectonics?
Draw a diagram of the rock cycle and label the
processes involved.
Describe the Cenozoic, Mesozoic, and
Paleozoic eras.
How are fossils used to determine rock
sequences?

Exercise 2
What is the definition of igneous, metamorphic,
and sedimentary rock?
For each rock, state the rock type (igneous,
metamorphic, or sedimentary)
Breccia
Granite
Marble
Shale
Quartzite
Slate
Sandstone
Gabbro

Exercise 3
On the following diagram, label the
missing features for marine deposits.
For what two reasons do beach sands
make good reservoirs?
What are the three classifications for
Deltas?
Explain how the height of a sand dune is
controlled by wind streamlines.

Exercise 3
Marine Deposits

Exercise 4
Describe the organic theory of
hydrocarbon formation.
Describe the maturation process.

Exercise 5
Sketch and name
Three types of structural traps
Three types of stratigraphic traps
Two types of unconventional traps

Exercise 6
What are the conditions for a commercial
oil reservoir to occur?
Define porosity.
Porosity depends on _____ not _______
Define permeability.
How is permeability measured?
What causes supernormal pressures?