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Chapter 9.
Hypothesis Testing I: The Six
Steps of Statistical Inference
2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Educa
tion
A Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a prediction about the
relationship between two variables
that asserts that differences among
the measurements of an independent
variable will correspond to differences
among the measurements of a
dependent variable
2008 McGraw-Hill
Using a Hypothesis to
Test a Theory
The hypothesis is stated before we
gather data
The theoretical purpose of a hypothesis
test is to corroborate theory by testing
preconceived ideas against facts
Theory motivates or pushes us to expect
certain empirical outcomes
2008 McGraw-Hill
Statistical Inference
Statistical inference is drawing conclusions
about a population on the basis of sample
statistics
The logic of hypothesis testing involves
deciding whether to accept or reject a
statement on the basis of observations of data
Accounting for sampling error with sampling
distributions is key to the process
2008 McGraw-Hill
Test Preparation
State the research question: A goal that
can be stated in terms of a hypothesis
Draw a conceptual diagram depicting
givens (population under study, sample
size, variables and their levels of
measurement, provided and calculated
parameters and statistics)
Select the statistical test
2008 McGraw-Hill
2008 McGraw-Hill
2008 McGraw-Hill
The Alternative
Hypothesis (HA)
HA is the statement we accept if H0 is
rejected
HA is often a direct statement of the
research question
2008 McGraw-Hill
The Direction of a
Hypothesis Test
Test direction refers to whether we
are able to predict the direction our
observed sample statistic will fall
Direction must be specified before we
observe data
2008 McGraw-Hill
The Direction of a
Hypothesis Test (cont.)
Three possible directional
statements:
1. Nondirectional (two-tailed test)
2. Positive direction (one-tailed test)
3. Negative direction (one-tailed test)
2008 McGraw-Hill
The Direction of a
Hypothesis Test (cont.)
In Step 1, the HA, we specify whether we
expect the outcome in our observed
sample to fall above (positive, one-tailed)
or below (negative, one-tailed) the
hypothesized parameter of the H0
For a nondirectional, two-tailed test, we do
not predict a direction and simply assert
that the outcome is expected to differ from
the hypothesized parameter
2008 McGraw-Hill
2008 McGraw-Hill
2008 McGraw-Hill
2008 McGraw-Hill
2008 McGraw-Hill
Step 4 (cont.):
The Test Statistic
The test statistic is a formula for
measuring the likelihood of the
observed effect
It transforms the effect into standard
error units so that the result may be
compared to critical scores of the
statistical tables in Appendix B
2008 McGraw-Hill
Step 4 (cont.)
The p-Value
The p-value is a measure of the
unusualness of a sample outcome when the
H0 is true. E.g., Is it unusual to roll four 7s in
a row with honest dice?
Calculation: p-value = probability (p) of
sampling outcomes as unusual as or more
unusual than the outcome observed under
the assumption that the H0 is true
An area in the tail(s) of the curve in Step 2
2008 McGraw-Hill
2008 McGraw-Hill
Probability Theory in
Hypothesis Testing
A Focus on p-Values:
When the p-Value is Large
When p > , we fail to reject the H0
A large p-value tells us that our observed
sample outcome is not much different or far
off from the outcome predicted by the H0
A large p-value occurs when the test effect is
small, and this suggests that the effect could
easily be the result of expected sampling
error
2008 McGraw-Hill
A Focus on p-Values:
When the p-Value is Small
When p < , we reject the H0
A small p-value tells us that assuming the
H0 is true, our sample outcome is unusual
or far off from the outcome predicted by
the H0
A small p-value occurs when the test effect
is large leading us to conclude that the test
effect did not result from sampling error
2008 McGraw-Hill
Critical Z-scores
on the Normal Curve
Critical Z-scores are ones of great
importance in statistical procedures
and are used very frequently
Some widely used critical Z-scores
are 1.64, 1.96, 2.33, 2.58, 3.08, and
3.30
See if you can match these scores to the
level of significance and direction of a
hypothesis test
2008 McGraw-Hill
Possible Results of a
Rejection Decision
Correct decision: Fail to reject a true
H0
Type I error: Rejecting a true H0
Correct decision: reject a false H0
Type II error: Failing to reject a false H0
2008 McGraw-Hill
2008 McGraw-Hill
Controlling Type I
and Type II Errors
Type I error is easily controlled by setting the
level of significance (), because it turns out
that = p [of making a Type I error]
= p [of making a Type II error]; controlling
beta () is difficult
is indirectly controlled when we set
because the two are inversely related; is
also minimized by using a large sample size
2008 McGraw-Hill
Four Conventional
Levels of Alpha ( )
=.10: High likelihood of rejecting the H0. Used in
exploratory research, where little is known about a
topic
=.05: Moderate likelihood of rejecting the H0.
Used in survey research
=.01 and =.001: Low likelihood of rejecting the
H0. Used in biological, laboratory, and medical
research, especially when a Type I error is lifethreatening
2008 McGraw-Hill
Selecting Which
Statistical Test to Use
Ask: How many variables are we observing
for this test?
What are the levels of measurement of the
variables?
Are we dealing with one representative
sample from a single population or more?
What is the sample size?
Are there peculiar circumstances to
consider?
2008 McGraw-Hill