CH 01

Chapter 1
The Basics
Bonding and Molecular
Structure
Created by
Professor William Tam & Dr. Phillis
Chang
Copyright 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
About The Authors

These Powerpoint Lecture Slides were created and prepared by
Professor William Tam and his wife Dr. Phillis Chang.
Professor William Tam received his B.Sc. at the University of Hong
Kong in 1990 and his Ph.D. at the University of Toronto (Canada) in
1995. He was an NSERC postdoctoral fellow at the Imperial College
(UK) and at Harvard University (USA). He joined the Department of
Chemistry at the University of Guelph (Ontario, Canada) in 1998 and
is currently a Full Professor and Associate Chair in the department.
Professor Tam has received several awards in research and teaching,
and according to Essential Science Indicators, he is currently ranked
as the Top 1% most cited Chemists worldwide. He has published four
books and over 80 scientific papers in top international journals such
as J. Am. Chem. Soc., Angew. Chem., Org. Lett., and J. Org. Chem.
Dr. Phillis Chang received her B.Sc. at New York University (USA) in
1994, her M.Sc. and Ph.D. in 1997 and 2001 at the University of
Guelph (Canada). She lives in Guelph with her husband, William, and
their son, Matthew.
2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Table of Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
(hyperlinked)
Life & the Chemistry of Carbon Compounds

Atomic Structure
Chemical Bonds: The Octet Rule
How to Write Lewis Structures
Formal Charges and How to Calculate Them
Isomers
How to Write and Interpret Structural Formulas
Resonance Theory
Quantum Mechanics & Atomic Structure
Atomic Orbitals and Electron Configuration
Molecular Orbitals
The Structure of Methane and Ethane: sp3 Hybridization
The Structure of Ethene (Ethylene): sp2 Hybridization
The Structure of Ethyne (Acetylene): sp Hybridization
A Summary of Important Concepts That Come from
Quantum Mechanics
How to Predict Molecular Geometry: The Valence Shell
Electron Pair Repulsion Model
Applications of Basic Principles
Table of Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Life & the Chemistry of Carbon Compounds

Atomic Structure
Chemical Bonds: The Octet Rule
How to Write Lewis Structures
Formal Charges and How to Calculate Them
Isomers
How to Write and Interpret Structural Formulas
Resonance Theory
Quantum Mechanics & Atomic Structure
Atomic Orbitals and Electron Configuration
Molecular Orbitals
The Structure of Methane and Ethane: sp3 Hybridization
The Structure of Ethene (Ethylene): sp2 Hybridization
The Structure of Ethyne (Acetylene): sp Hybridization
A Summary of Important Concepts That Come from
Quantum Mechanics
How to Predict Molecular Geometry: The Valence Shell
Applications of Basic Principles
In this chapter we will consider:
What kinds of atoms make up

organic molecules
The principles that determine how

the atoms in organic molecules
are bound together
How best to depict organic

molecules
1. Life & the Chemistry of Carbon

Compounds
Organic chemistry is the chemistry

of compounds that contain the
element carbon. Carbon, atomic
number 6, is a second-row
element
If a compound does not contain

the element carbon, it is said to be
inorganic
Carbon compounds are central to

the structure of living organisms
and therefore to the existence of
life on Earth. We exist because of
carbon compounds
Although carbon is the principal

element in organic compounds,
most also contain hydrogen, and
many contain nitrogen, oxygen,
phosphorus, sulfur, chlorine, or
other compounds
There are two important reasons

why carbon is the element that
nature has chosen for living
organisms:
Carbon
atoms can form strong

bonds to other carbon atoms to
form rings and chains of carbon
atoms
Carbon
atoms can also form

strong bonds to elements such
Because of these bond-forming

properties, carbon can be the
basis for the huge diversity of
compounds necessary for the
emergence of living organisms
2. Atomic Structure
Compounds
made up of elements combined
in different proportions
Elements
made up of atoms
Atoms
positively charged nucleus
containing protons and neutrons
with a surrounding cloud of
negatively charged electrons
Each element is distinguished by

its atomic number (Z)
Atomic number = number of

protons in nucleus
2A. Isotopes
Although all the nuclei of all atoms

of the same element will have the
same number of protons, some
atoms of the same element may
have different masses because
they have different numbers of
neutrons. Such atoms are called
isotopes
Examples
(1)
12
13
(6 protons
6 neutrons)
(2)
(6 protons
7 neutrons)
Hydrogen
(1 proton
0 neutrons)
14
(6 protons
8 neutrons)
Deuterium
(1 proton
1 neutron)
Tritium
(1 proton
2 neutrons)
2B. Valence Electrons

Electrons that surround the nucleus
exist in shells of increasing energy and
at increasing distances from the
nucleus. The most important shell,
called the valence shell, is the
outermost shell because the electrons
of this shell are the ones that an atom
uses in making chemical bonds with
other atoms to form compounds
The number of electrons in the
valence shell (called valence
electrons) is equal to the group
e.g. Carbon is in group IVA

Carbon has 4 valence electrons
e.g. Nitrogen is in group VA

Nitrogen has 5 valence electrons
e.g. Halogens are in group VIIA

F, Cl, Br, I all have 7 valence
electrons
3. Chemical Bonds:
The Octet Rule
Ionic (or electrovalent) bonds are

formed by the transfer of one or
more electrons from one atom to
another to create ions
Covalent bonds result when

atoms share electrons
Octet Rule
In forming compounds, they
gain, lose, or share electrons to
give a stable electron
configuration characterized by 8
valence electrons
When
the octet rule is satisfied

for C, N, O and F, they have an
electron configuration analogous
to the noble gas Ne
Recall: electron configuration of

noble (inert) gas
[1s2]
# of e-s in outer
shell
2
Ne 1s2[2s22p6]
Ar 1s22s22p6[3s23p6]
3A. Ionic Bonds
Atoms may gain or lose electrons

and form charged particles called
ions
An
ionic bond is an attractive

force between oppositely
charged ions
Electronegativity (EN)
The
intrinsic ability of an atom to

attract the shared electrons in a
covalent bond
Electronegativities
are based on
an arbitrary scale, with F the
most electronegative (EN = 4.0)
and Cs the least (EN = 0.7)
lLie
e
m
e
n
t
H
(
E
N
)
(
2
.
1
)
B
e
B
C
N
O
F
((1
.0
0
)
(
1
.
6
)
(
2
.
0
)
(
2
.
5
)
(
3
.
0
)
(
3
.
5
)
(
4
.
0
)
N
a
M
g
S
i
P
S
C
l
.(0
9
)
(
1
.
2
)
(
1
.
8
)
(
2
.
1
)
(
2
.
5
)
(
3
.
0
)
K
B
r
.(0
8
)
(
2
.
8
)
R
b
I
.(0
8
)
(
2
.
5
)
C
s
.7
)
give 1 e- to
Na
Cl
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
1 e- in outermost shell)
(7 e- in outermost shell)
ionic bonding
+
Na
1s2 2s2 2p6
Cl
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
8
3B. Covalent Bonds & Lewis

Structures
Covalent bonds form by sharing

of electrons between atoms of
similar electronegativities to
achieve the configuration of a
noble gas
Molecules are composed of

atoms joined exclusively or
predominantly by covalent bonds
Heterolysis
A B
heterolytic
bond
cleavage
A + B
ions
Homolysis
A B
homolytic
bond
cleavage
A +B
radicals
Example
: :
.Cl:
[Ne] 3s2 3p5
[Ne] 3s2 3p5
: :
:Cl.
covalent bonding
: :
: :
:ClCl:
Ions, themselves, may contain

covalent bonds. Consider, as an
example, the ammonium ion
N
H
H+
(ammonia)
(3 bonds on N)
H
N H
H
H
(ammonium cation)
(4 bonds on N with
a positive charge on N)
4. How to Write Lewis Structures

Lewis structures show the
connections between atoms in a
molecule or ion using only the
valence electrons of the atoms
involved
For main group elements, the
number of valence electrons a
neutral atom brings to a Lewis
structure is the same as its group
number in the periodic table
If the structure we are drawing is

a negative ion (an anion), we add
one electron for each negative
charge to the original count of
valence electrons. If the structure
is a positive ion (a cation), we
subtract one electron for each
positive charge
In drawing Lewis structures we try
to give each atom the electron
configuration of a noble gas
Examples
(1)
Lewis structure of CH3Br

Total
number of all valence

electrons:
C
Br
4 + 1 x 3 + 7 = 14
Br
H
H
8 H
valence
electrons
: :
Br:
remainin
g6
valence
electrons
(2)
Lewis structure of methylamine

(CH5N)
Total
number of all valence

electrons:
C
4 + 1 x 5 + 5 = 14
2 valence
electrons left
H
H
12
valence
electrons
A. Exceptions to the Octet Rule

Elements in the 2nd row in the
periodic table usually obey the
Octet Rule (Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F)
since they have one 2s and three
2p orbitals available for bonding
Elements in the 3rd row in the
periodic table have d orbitals that
can be used for bonding and may
not obey the Octet Rule
Examples
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
P
Cl
Cl
Cl
(PCl5)
F
Si
F
F
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
P
Cl
Cl
Cl
Phosphorus pentachloride
2-
m.p. = 179oC
F
F
(SiF62-)
Some highly reactive molecules or

ions have atoms with fewer than
eight electrons in their outer shell
F
F
5. Formal Charges and How to

Calculate Them
Formal charge = number of valence

electrons 1/2 number of shared
electrons
number of unshared electrons
or
F = Z - S /2 - U
where F is the formal charge, Z is the
group number of the element, S
equals the number of shared
electrons, and U is the number of
unshared electrons
Examples
(1) The Ammonium ion (NH4+)
H
HNH
H
Recall F = Z - S /2 - U
:
Formal charge of H:
=1
2/2 0 = 0
group
numb
er of H
number
number
of
of
shared
unshared
electron electrons
Formal charge of N:
=5
8/2 0 = +1
group
numb
er of N
number
of
shared
electron
s
number
of
unshared
electrons
Charge on ion = 4 x 0 +1 = +1
The arithmetic sum of all the formal
charges in a molecule or ion will
equal the overall charge on the
molecule or ion
(2) The Nitrate ion (NO3 )

O
N
O
Recall F = Z - S /2 - U
:
Formal charge of O:
=6
2/2 6 = -1
group
numb
er of O
number
number
of
of
shared
unshared
electron electrons
Formal charge of O:
= 6 4/2 4 = 0
group
numb
er of O
number
number
of
of
shared
unshared
electron electrons
scharge of N:
Formal
= 5 8/2 0 = +1
group
numb
er of N
Charge
number
of
shared
electron
on sion =
number
of
unshared
electrons
2 x (-1) + 0 +1 = -1
(3) Water (H2O)

The sum of the formal charges on
each atom making up a molecule
must be zero
Formal charge of O = 6 4/2 4 =

0
Formal charge of H = 1 2/2 0 =
0
Charge on molecule = 0 + 2 x 0 = 0
. A Summary of Formal Charges
6. Isomers
Isomers: different compounds

that have the same molecular
formula
Constitutional isomers:
isomers that have the same
molecular formula but different
connectivity their atoms are
connected in a different order
Examples
Molecular
Formula
C4H10
Constitutional
Isomers
and
Butane
2-Methylpropane
Cl
C3H7Cl
Cl
1-Chloropropane
and
2-Chloropropane
Examples
Molecular
Formula
C2H6O
Constitutional
Isomers
CH3 O CH3
OH and
Ethanol
Methoxymethane
C4H8O2
OCH3
OH and
Butanoic acid
O
Methyl propanoate
7. How to Write and Interpret

Structural Formulas
A. More About Dash Structural

Formulas
Atoms joined by single bonds can
rotate relatively free with respect
to one another
HH
H
H
H
C
H
O
C
H
HO
H
H
H
C
H
C
H
O
C
HH
H
H
Equivalent dash formulas for propyl alcohol
Condensed Structural Formulas
7C. Bond-Line Formulas
Apply the following rules when

drawing bond-line formulas:
Each line represents a bond
Each bend in a line or terminus of
a line represents a carbon atom,
unless another group is shown
explicitly
No letter Cs are written for
carbon atoms, except optionally
for CH3 groups at the end of a
No
letter Hs are shown for

hydrogen atoms, unless they are
needed to give a threedimensional perspective, in which
case we use dashed or solid
wedges (as explained in the next
section)
The number of hydrogen atoms
bonded to each carbon is inferred
by assuming that as many
hydrogen atoms are present as
needed to fill the valence shell of
When
an atom other than carbon

or hydrogen is present, the
symbol for that element is
written at the appropriate
location (i.e., in place of a bend
or at the terminus of the line
leading to the atom)
Hydrogen atoms bonded to
atoms other than carbon (e.g.,
oxygen or nitrogen) are written
explicitly
D. Three-Dimensional Formulas
A dashed wedge (
) represents
a bond that projects behind the
plane of the paper
A solid wedge (
) represents a
bond that projects out of the plane
of the paper
An ordinary line (
) represents a
bond that lies in the plane of the
paper
D. Three-Dimensional Formulas
H
H
C
C
H
H
OR
C
H
H
C
etc.
Ethane
H
Br
H
H
H
OR
Br
Br
OR
H
Bromomethane
H
H
etc.
Br
H
H
OH
Cl
H
Examples of bond-line formulas that include
three-dimensional representations
H NH
2
Br
HO
An example involving
trigonal planar geometry
An example involving
linear geometry
8. Resonance Theory
In a Lewis structure, we draw a

well-defined location for the
electrons in a molecule. In many
molecules and ions (especially
those containing bonds), more
than one equivalent Lewis
structure can be drawn which
represent the same molecule
We can write three different but

equivalent structures, 13
O
O
C
1
becomes
O
becomes
O
Structures 13, although not

identical on paper, are
equivalent; all of its carbon
oxygen bonds are of equal length
Resonance theory states that

whenever a molecule or ion can be
represented by two or more Lewis
structures that differ only in the
positions of the electrons, two things
will be true:
None of these structures, which we call

resonance structures or resonance
contributors, will be a realistic
representation for the molecule or ion.
None will be in complete accord with the
physical or chemical properties of the
substance
The actual molecule or ion will be better
Resonance
structures, then, are

not real structures for the actual
molecule or ion; they exist only
on paper
It
is also important to distinguish

between resonance and an
equilibrium
In
an equilibrium between two or

more species, it is quite correct to
think of different structures and
moving (or fluctuating) atoms, but
not in the case of resonance (as in
the carbonate ion). Here the atoms
do not move, and the structures
exist only on paper. An equilibrium
is indicated by
and
8A. How to Write Resonance

Structures
Resonance structures exist

only on paper. Although they
have no real existence of their
own, resonance structures are
useful because they allow us to
describe molecules and ions for
which a single Lewis structure is
inadequate
We write two or more Lewis

structures, calling them resonance
structures or resonance
contributors. We connect these
structures by double-headed
arrows
, and we say that
the real molecule or ion is a hybrid
of all of them
We are only allowed to move

electrons in writing resonance
structures
These are resonance structures

H2C CH2 CH CH2
This is not a proper resonance

structure of 1 and 2 because a
hydrogen atom has been
All of the structures must be

proper Lewis structures
H
H
This is not a proper resonance

structure of methanol
(hypervalent carbon having 5
bonds!!)
The energy of the resonance

hybrid is lower than the energy of
any contributing structure.
Resonance stabilizes a molecule
or ion. This is especially true
when the resonance structures are
equivalent. Chemists call this
stabilization resonance
stabilization. If the resonance
structures are equivalent, then the
resonance stabilization is large
The more stable a structure is

(when taken by itself), the greater
is its contribution to the hybrid
The Use of Curved Arrows: How

to Write Resonance Structures
Curved arrows
show
the direction of electron flow in a

reaction mechanism
point from the source of an electron pair
to the atom receiving the pair
always show the flow of electrons from a
site of higher electron density to a site of
lower electron density
never show the movement of atoms.
Atoms are assumed to follow the flow of
the electrons
Examples
HO
N
H
NOT
O
C
HO
NOT
N
H
O
H3C
O
O
H + OH
H3C
O +H
Examples
(1) Benzene
(2) Carboxylate ion (RCOO-)

O
R
(3) Ozone (O3)

O
O
8C. How to Decide When One

Resonance Structure Contributes
More to the Hybrid
The more covalent bonds a
structure has, the more stable it is
Charge separation decreases
Resonance structures for formaldehyde
stability
Four
covalent
bonds
more stable
less stable
Three
covalent
bonds
Structures in which all the atoms

have a complete valence shell of
electrons (i.e., the noble gas
structure) are more stable
9. Quantum Mechanics & Atomic

Structure
Wave mechanics & quantum

mechanics
Each wave function ()
corresponds to a different
energy state for an electron
Each energy state is a sublevel
where one or two electrons can
reside
Wave functions are tools for

calculating two important
properties
The energy associated with the
state of the electron can be
calculated
The relative probability of an
electron residing at particular
places in the sublevel can be
determined
The phase sign of a wave equation

indicates whether the solution is
positive or negative when
calculated for a given point in
space relative to the nucleus
Wave functions, whether they are

for sound waves, lake waves, or
the energy of an electron, have
the possibility of constructive
interference and destructive
interference
Constructive interference
occurs when wave functions with
the same phase sign interact.
There is a reinforcing effect and
the amplitude of the wave function
increases
Destructive interference occurs
when wave functions with opposite
phase signs interact. There is a
subtractive effect and the
amplitude of the wave function
goes to zero or changes sign
10.Atomic Orbitals and Electron

Configuration
0A. Electron Configurations
The relative energies of atomic orbitals

in the 1st & 2nd principal shells are as
follows:
Electrons in 1s orbitals have the lowest
energy because they are closest to the
positive nucleus
Electrons in 2s orbitals are next lowest
in energy
Electrons of the three 2p orbitals have
equal but higher energy than the 2s
orbital
Orbitals of equal energy (such as the
Aufbau principle
Orbitals are filled so that those
of lowest energy are filled first
Pauli exclusion principle

A maximum of two electrons
may be placed in each orbital
but only when the spins of the
electrons are paired
Hunds rule
When we come to orbitals of equal
energy (degenerate orbitals) such
as the three p orbitals, we add one
electron to each with their spins
unpaired until each of the
degenerate orbitals contains one
electron. (This allows the
electrons, which repel each other,
to be farther apart.) Then we
begin adding a second electron to
each degenerate orbital so that the
spins are paired
11.Molecular Orbitals
We cannot simultaneously know

the position and momentum of an
electron
An atomic orbital represents the
region of space where one or two
electrons of an isolated atom are
likely to be found
A molecular orbital (MO)
represents the region of space
where one or two electrons of a
molecule are likely to be found
An orbital (atomic or molecular)

can contain a maximum of two
spin-paired electrons (Pauli
exclusion principle)
When atomic orbitals combine to

form molecular orbitals, the
number of molecular orbitals that
result always equals the number
of atomic orbitals that combine
A bonding molecular orbital

(molec) results when two orbitals of
the same phase overlap
An antibonding molecular
orbital (*molec) results when two
orbitals of opposite phase overlap
12.The Structure of Methane and

Ethane: sp3 Hybridization
Ground state of a carbon atom
C
1s
2s
2px
2py
2pz
Hybridization
sp3
covalent
bond
sp3
hybridized
carbon
H
H
H
(line bond structure)
Hybridization
sp3
H
H
C
H
(Lewis structure)
109o
H
H
C
H
H
(3-D stucture)
Tetrahedral
structure
Carbon with
4 bonds
2A. The Structure of Methane
2B. The Structure of Ethane
13.The Structure of Ethene

(Ethylene): sp2 Hybridization
sp2
o
~120
H
H
~120o
1 bond + 1 bond
sp2 hybridized carbon
H
H
~120o
sp2
3-Dimensional View
-bond
(-orbitals overlap)
H
H
C
C
H
Planar structure
Carbon with (3 + 1) bonds
An sp2-hybridized carbon atom
A model for the bonding molecular orbitals of ethene

formed from two sp2-hybridized carbon atoms
and four hydrogen atoms
A. Restricted Rotation and the

Double Bond
There is a large energy barrier to

rotation associated with groups
joined by a double bond
~264 kJ/mol (strength of the
bond)
To compare: rotation of groups
joined by C-C single bonds
~13-26 kJ/mol
13B. Cis -Trans Isomerism
Stereochemistry of double bonds

H
H
R
identical to
H
H
H
H3C
H
H
identical to
Pr
H
CH3
Pr
H3C
CH3
different from
CH3
CH3
(trans)
Restricted rotation of C=C
(cis)
Cis-Trans System
o Useful for 1,2 disubstituted
alkenes
e.g.
(1)
H
Cl
Br
Br
H
trans -1-Bromo2-chloroethane
vs.
Cl
H
cis-1-Bromo2-chloroethane
(2)
H
H
vs.
H
trans -3-Hexene
H
cis -3-Hexene
(3)
Br
Br
Br
trans -1,3Dibromopropene
vs.
Br
cis -1,3Dibromopropene
14.The Structure of Ethyne

(Acetylene): sp Hybridization
sp
1 bond + 2 bond
H
180o
sp hybridized carbon
Linear structure
Carbon with (2 + 2 ) bonds
sp orbital
50% s character, 50% p
character
sp2 orbital
character
sp3 orbital
character
Bond Lengths of Ethyne, Ethene,

& Ethane
The carboncarbon triple bond of

ethyne is shorter than the carbon
carbon double bond of ethene,
which in turn is shorter than the
carboncarbon single bond of
ethane
Reasons:
The greater the s orbital character in

one or both atoms, the shorter is the
bond. This is because s orbitals are
spherical and have more electron
density closer to the nucleus than
do p orbitals
The greater the p orbital character
in one or both atoms, the longer is
the bond. This is because p orbitals
are lobe-shaped with electron
density extending away from the
nucleus
15.A Summary of Important

Concepts That Come from
Quantum Mechanics
1)
An atomic orbital (AO)

corresponds to a region of space
about the nucleus of a single atom
where there is a high probability of
finding an electron. s orbitals are
spherical, p orbitals are like two
almost-tangent spheres. Orbitals
can hold a maximum of two
2)
When atomic orbitals overlap,

they combine to form molecular
orbitals (MOs)
3)
When atomic orbitals with the

same phase sign interact, they
combine to form a bonding
molecular orbital
4)
An antibonding molecular
orbital forms when orbitals of
opposite phase sign overlap
The energy of electrons in a

bonding molecular orbital is less
than the energy of the electrons in
their separate atomic orbitals
6) The number of molecular orbitals
always equals the number of atomic
orbitals from which they are formed
7) Hybrid atomic orbitals are
obtained by
mixing (hybridizing) the wave
functions
for orbitals of different types (i.e., s
5)
8)
Hybridizing three p orbitals with

one s orbital yields four sp3
orbitals and they are tetrahedral
9)
Hybridizing two p orbitals with

one s orbital yields three sp2
orbitals and they are trigonal
planar
10) Hybridizing
one p orbital with one

s orbital yields two sp orbitals, a
linear molecule
11) A
sigma () bond (a type of

single bond) is one in which the
electron density has circular
symmetry when viewed along
the bond axis
12) A
pi () bond, part of double and

triple carboncarbon bonds, is
one in which the electron
densities of two adjacent parallel
p orbitals overlap sideways to
form a bonding pi molecular
16.How to Predict Molecular

Geometry: The Valence Shell
Valence shell electron pair

repulsion (VSEPR) model:
1) We consider molecules (or
ions) in which the central
atom is covalently bonded to
two or more atoms or groups
2) We consider all of the valence

electron pairs of the central
atomboth those that are
shared in covalent bonds,
called bonding pairs, and
those that are unshared,
called nonbonding pairs or
unshared pairs or lone pairs
3) Because electron pairs repel

each other, the electron pairs
of the valence shell tend to
stay as far apart as possible.
The repulsion between
nonbonding pairs is generally
greater than that between
bonding pairs
4) We arrive at the geometry of

the molecule by considering
all of the electron pairs,
bonding and nonbonding, but
we describe the shape of the
molecule or ion by referring to
the positions of the nuclei (or
atoms) and not by the
positions of the electron pairs
16A. Methane
16B. Ammonia
A tetrahedral arrangement of the

electron pairs explains the trigonal
pyramidal arrangement of the four
atoms. The bond angles are 107 (not
109.5) because the nonbonding pair
occupies more space than the bonding
16C. Water
16D. Boron Trifluoride
16E. Beryllium Hydride
16F. Carbon Dioxide
7.Applications of Basic Principle
Opposite Charges Attract
Like Charges Repel
Nature Tends toward States of

Lower Potential Energy
Orbital Overlap Stabilizes Molecules

END OF CHAPTER 1

CH 01

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Chapter 1

About The Authors

Life & the Chemistry of Carbon Compounds

Life & the Chemistry of Carbon Compounds

In this chapter we will consider:

What kinds of atoms make up

The principles that determine how

How best to depict organic

1. Life & the Chemistry of Carbon

Organic chemistry is the chemistry

If a compound does not contain

Carbon compounds are central to

Although carbon is the principal

There are two important reasons

atoms can form strong

atoms can also form

Because of these bond-forming

2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Each element is distinguished by

Atomic number = number of

2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Although all the nuclei of all atoms

2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

2B. Valence Electrons

2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

e.g. Carbon is in group IVA

e.g. Nitrogen is in group VA

e.g. Halogens are in group VIIA

2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Ionic (or electrovalent) bonds are

Covalent bonds result when

the octet rule is satisfied

Recall: electron configuration of

2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

3A. Ionic Bonds

Atoms may gain or lose electrons

ionic bond is an attractive

2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

intrinsic ability of an atom to

3B. Covalent Bonds & Lewis

Covalent bonds form by sharing

Molecules are composed of

2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Ne] 3s2 3p5

[Ne] 3s2 3p5

2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Ions, themselves, may contain

2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

4. How to Write Lewis Structures

2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

If the structure we are drawing is

2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Lewis structure of CH3Br

number of all valence

2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Lewis structure of methylamine

number of all valence

2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

A. Exceptions to the Octet Rule

2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Some highly reactive molecules or