A DISSERTATION SEMINAR

ON

VENTILATION, AIR-CONDITIONING
& FIRE SAFETY IN TUNNELS
Presented By: Prashant U. Patil
Roll No-M0810C08
M. Tech. II
(Construction & Management)
Under the Guidance of: Dr. M. S. Ranadive
Asst. Professor
Civil Engg. Dept.
C.O.E.P.

COLLEEGE OF ENGINEERING, PUNE

CONTENTS
Introduction
Background and Need of the Work
Methodology of the Work
Introduction to Environmental Control System
Design Aspects of Ventilation and Fire Safety
Provisional Checklist for Ventilation, Airconditioning and Fire Safety in Tunnels
Conclusion
References

INTRODUCTION
Growing urban population and the concern for
traffic congestion and pollution requires more
transit systems.
Competition for space, together with the need to
suppress noise pollution will cause some of the
new traffic to be diverted through underground.
To gain access to the central area of the city, the
sub- way remains the most viable alternative,
despite its higher cost when compared to above
ground or elevated transportation systems.
So, invariably tunnels have to be constructed to
meet the demand of increasing traffic load.

BACKGROUND AND NEED OF THE

WORK
Relatively few regulations and criteria for subway
ventilation.
Many of the subway systems in existence today
do not consider stringent criteria for emergency
conditions such as a train fire in a tunnel.[5]
Vehicle fires in road and rail tunnels are
recognized to represent an immediate and
extreme danger to the patrons of those systems.
The general public are neither trained nor
equipped to fight fires or evacuate under
deteriorating smoke conditions.

BACKGROUND AND NEED OF THE

WORK

The study of the UNECE (United Nations Economic

Commission for Europe) entitled Risk Analysis of
Accidents in Tunnels analyzed 176 cases of accidents
involving trains in tunnels or underground railways.
Out of these, 49% cases were involving fire.

Fig.1 Distribution of accident cases in tunnels or underground railways.

(Source: UNECE, United Nations Economic Commission for
Europe) [14]

BACKGROUND AND NEED OF THE

WORK

Fire safety in rail and road tunnels is challenging because of

the specific features such as -

restricted egress path,

lack of approach at the place of fire origin,

accumulation of smoke inside the tunnel, etc.

Also, the underground stations of the Metro Corridor are to

be built in the confined underground space.
A large number of passengers occupy concourse and the
platform, especially during the peak hours.
The platforms and concourse have a limited access from
outside and do not have natural ventilation.
It is, therefore, essential to provide artificial ventilation in the
station areas. [1]

BACKGROUND AND NEED OF THE

WORK
Indian Standards & Codes have no guidelines on
temperature standards to be maintained for the
underground mass rapid transit systems as yet.
[1]
Currently there are no international safety
norms or standards applicable to subway
ventilation systems.
No general consensus of applicability of National
Standards, except common practice to have local
procedures based on past experience and
sometimes to learn from the experiences of other
agencies.[5]

OBJECTIVES OF THE WORK

To study the aspects like ventilation, air

conditioning and fire safety of tunnels for roads
and metro railways.
To formulate provisional checklist for
preliminary design purpose that can be used as
reference for the tunnel projects in general.

METHODOLOGY OF THE WORK

The method of Reference Analysis is adopted for

the formulation of the proposed study.
The literature available and data collected through -

Visits to Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC) [26 November 2009 to 04

December 2009]
Modaksagar Tunnel Project [8 March 2010 to 13 March 2010]
respectively to serve the purpose of data collection required for the
work.

Publications such as -

American Society of Heating Refrigeration and Air-conditioning

Engineers (ASHRAE) Journals,
Subway Environmental Design Handbook (SEDH) Specifications,
Permanent International Association of Roadways Congress
(PIARC) publications,
Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) publications,
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) publications, etc

INTRODUCTION TO
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
SYSTEM

Ventilation, Air-Conditioning and Fire Safety are generally

clustered together under one common term Environmental
Control System. (ECS)

Ventilation System in Tunnels

Natural Ventilation

Longitudinal Ventilation

Semi-Transverse Ventilation

Full-Transverse Ventilation

Single-Point Extraction

10

NATURAL VENTILATION

The movement of air controlled byMeteorological conditions

Piston effect created by moving traffic pushing
the stale air through the tunnel

Fig 2 Natural Ventilation in Tunnels

11

LONGITUDINAL VENTILATION

Same as natural ventilation but addition of fans

is done

12

Fig. 3 Longitudinal Ventilation in Tunnels

SEMI-TRANSVERSE
VENTILATION

A separate ductwork is added either above or

below the tunnel with flues that allow for
uniform distribution of air into or out of the
tunnel.

13

Fig. 4 Semi-Transverse Ventilation in Tunnels

FULL-TRANSVERSE
VENTILATION

Uses the same components as semi-transverse ventilation, but it

incorporates supply air and exhaust air together over the same length of
tunnel.

This method is used primarily for

Longer tunnels that have large amounts of air that need to be replaced

Heavily traveled tunnels that produce high levels of contaminants

14

Fig. 5 Full-Transverse Ventilation in Tunnels

SINGLE-POINT EXTRACTION
Used to increase the airflow potential in the
event of a fire in the tunnel.
The system works by allowing the opening size of
select exhaust flues to increase during an
emergency.
This can be done by

Mechanically opening louvers

Constructing portions of the ceiling out of material that

would go from a solid to a gas during a fire

15

PURPOSES OF UNDERGROUND
VENTILATION
Supply of adequate quality air for workers.
Dilution or removal of construction-generated
fumes from equipment and blasting or of gases
entering the tunnel.
Cooling of air -heat sources include equipment,
high temperature of in situ rock or groundwater,
high ambient temperature.
Heating of air - sometimes required to prevent
creation of ice from seepage water or from
saturated exhaust air.
Smoke exhaust in the event of underground firedust control.

16

COMPONENTS OF VENTILATION
SYSTEM
Fans
Axial
Tube axial
Vane axial
Centrifugal
Fan lines
Scrubbers
Ancillary ventilation structures
Monitors and controls

17

OBJECTIVES OF ECS DESIGN

To provide subway patrons with a reasonable

degree of comfort during normal operations.
To assist in keeping them safe during
emergencies.

18

VARIOUS ECS DESIGN CONCEPTS

Open system

Closed system

PSD (Platform screen door) system

19

Fig. 6 Station ECS Section

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR ECS

Outdoor ambient conditions

Sub-soil temperature

Thermal Shock considerations

20

OPERATING SCENARIOS

Normal Operating Conditions.

Congested Operating Conditions.

Emergency Conditions.

Forced ventilation is necessary during the congestion and

emergency operation.
21

FIRE SAFETY IN TUNNELS

Causes of fire :
Road tunnels Electrical defects
Motor overheating
Brake overheating

Rail tunnels

Fires in goods trains can be caused by:

Derailment, collision and other train accidents
Electrical defects in the wagons
Mechanical defects in the wagons, e.g. the axles and brakes
Fires starting in the goods
Fires in passenger trains can be caused by:
Carelessness by passengers
Arson material
Derailment, collision and other train accidents
Electrical defects or defects in the heating system
Mechanical defects in the wagons, e.g. the axles and brakes

22

OBJECTIVE FOR FIRE DESIGN

To ensure the safety by prevention of critical
events that may endanger human life, the
environment, the tunnel structure and
installations for road, rail and metro.
To reduce the consequences of eventual fires.

23

FIRE FIGHTING ARRANGEMENT

Sprinklers are most commonly used to combat

fire.

There are 4 basic types of fire sprinkler systems:

Wet Pipe System

Dry Pipe System

Deluge System

Pre-action System

24

Fig. 7 Sprinklers

DESIGN ASPECTS OF
VENTILATION AND FIRE SAFETY
1) Calculation for Discharge Volume of Ventilation :
The discharge volume of ventilation in tunnel is calculated as follows. [13]

Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + Q4 . (Eq.1)
Where,
Q = Total discharge volume of ventilation.
Now, the different discharge volumes related to specific requirement can be
formulated as given below.
Q1
= Discharge volume of ventilation necessary for labors and engineers
in tunnel.
= q1 N1
Where,
q1 = Discharge volume of ventilation per one person
25
N1 = Maximum number of labors and engineers in tunnel

DESIGN ASPECTS OF
VENTILATION AND FIRE SAFETY

Q2

Where,

= Discharge volume of ventilation for dust caused by blasting

= (V21/T) {1- (K2
V21)/V22}

V21 = Volume of tunnel where ventilation is necessary

= A 2 L2
Where,

A2 = Area of tunnel,

L2 = Tunnel length where ventilation is necessary

T = Time during ventilation

K2 = Allowable density of poison gas... (Refer Table 4.4)

V22 = Volume of poison gas generated by blasting (Refer Table 4.2)

26

DESIGN ASPECTS OF
VENTILATION AND FIRE SAFETY

Q3 = Discharge volume of ventilation for dust generated by shotcreting

= q3/K3
Where,

q3 = dust weight per time generated by shotcreting (Refer Table 4.1)

K3 = Allowable density of dust....... (Refer Table 4.3)

Q4 = Discharge volume of ventilation for poison gas generated by cars to

transport excavated materials
= Q41 N4/K4

27

DESIGN ASPECTS OF
VENTILATION AND FIRE SAFETY

Where,

Q41 = Discharge volume of exhaust gas generated by one car

= V41 N41

Where,

= Coefficient decided by type of engine

= 0.4 to 1.2 for meter-minute unit

V41 = Engine displacement (Volume)

N41 = Number of rotation of engine (rpm)

= Content of poison gas in exhaust gas (Volume ratio: Poison

gas divided by exhaust gas)

N4 = Number of cars

K4 = Allowable density of poison gas... (Refer Table 4.4)

28

DESIGN ASPECTS OF
VENTILATION AND FIRE SAFETY
Works

Density of dust (mg/m3)

Excavation

10 - 1000

Loading of excavated materials

10 - 1000

Mucking (Transportation)

10 - 1000

Drilling

1- 50

Blasting

100 - 300

Shotcreting

10 - 200

Table 4.1 - Dust density caused by tunneling works [13]

29

DESIGN ASPECTS OF
VENTILATION AND FIRE SAFETY
Explosive/ Diesel

Explosive

Diesel

Classification

Poison gas

Volume(m3/kg) for
CO (m3/(min/piece)
for NOx

Enoki-dynamite

Carbon monoxide

810-3

Other dynamite

Carbon monoxide

1110-3

Slurry type

Carbon monoxide

210-3

Emulsion type

Carbon monoxide

510-3

ANFO

Carbon monoxide

3010-3

Shovel

Nitrogen oxide

5510-6

Dump truck

Nitrogen oxide

2010-6

Others

Nitrogen oxide

2010-6

Table 4.2 - Volume of generated poison gas [13]

30

DESIGN ASPECTS OF
VENTILATION AND FIRE SAFETY
Category

Kinds of dust

Tale, Soapstone, Kieselguhr,

Aluminum, Bentnite, etc.
Mineral dust, Iron oxide, Coal,
Portland cement, etc.
Other organic or inorganic dust
Asbestos, Actinolite, etc.

2
3
4

Allowable
density(mg/m3)
2
4
8
0.12

Table 4.3 - Allowable density of dust [13]

Gas

Allowable density (ppm)

Carbon monoxide

100

Nitrogen oxide

25

Table 4.4- Allowable density of poison gas [13]

31

DESIGN ASPECTS OF
VENTILATION AND FIRE SAFETY
2) Calculation for fresh air requirements in road tunnels

The formula given by PIARC for amount of fresh air calculation is as follows. [11]
V PIARC, required = M .L .Q.
1_____ .. (Eq. 2)
V
Cadm Camb
Where,
M = traffic flow
L = length of tunnel
V = speed of cars
Q = qex(v,i) . fh .fa + qne(v)
Where,
Q = emission for CO, NOx [g/h,veh] and diesel particles [m 2/h,veh]
qex (v, i) = basic emission factor, depending on average speed and road gradient
qne (v) = emission factor for non-exhaust particulate emissions
fh = altitude factor
fa = ageing factor for catalysts
Cadm = admissible concentration of toxic gases
Camb = ambient concentration of toxic gases

32

NECESSARY STEPS FOR

DESIGNING THE VENTILATION
SYSTEM

Estimation of the required quantity of the

incoming air under normal operating conditions.
Determination of the critical air velocity for each
branch to control smoke propagation.
Estimation of the required quantity of the total
incoming air in order to attain critical velocity
and avoid back layering.
Configuration of the facility layout alternatives,
so as to minimize air quantity requirements.
Re-estimation of the required air quantity for
each alternative.
Selection of the final scheme.

33

CRITICAL VELOCITY CONCEPT

FOR DESIGN
Critical velocity is a site-specific value based on
tunnel geometry, heat release rate, psychrometric
conditions of air, and tunnel grade at the location
of the fire.
Two empirical formulas have been established
and have been used for years as a measure of the
adequacy of airflow to prevent back layering of
smoke when ventilating a tunnel fire.
Air velocity lower than the critical can be
considered inadequate, whereas larger than the
critical velocity could result in possible increase
of the fire size and contribute to its rapid spread
throughout the area.

34

CRITICAL VELOCITY CONCEPT

FOR DESIGN

VC = K1 Kg [gHq]1/3 (Eq.3)
[cpATf ]

Tf = [q ]1/3 + T ....(Eq. 4)
[cpAVC]

35

CRITICAL VELOCITY CONCEPT

FOR DESIGN

Where
A = area perpendicular to the flow, (m2)
cp = specific heat of air, (kJ/(kgK)
g = acceleration caused by gravity, (m/s2)
H = height of duct or tunnel at the fire site, (m)
K1 = 0.606
Kg = gradient of tunnel
q = heat that fire adds directly to air at the fire site, (kW)
T = temperature of approach air, (K)
Tf = average temperature of fire site gases, (K)
VC = critical velocity, (m/s)
= average density of approach (upstream) air, (kg/m3)

36

SOFTWARE FOR TUNNEL

VENTILATION SYSTEM DESIGN
Subway Environment Simulation computer
program (SES)
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
Simulation of Transient Evacuation and
Pedestrian Movements (STEPS)
ARGOS, etc.

37

CHECKLIST FOR VENTILATION

AND AIR-CONDITIONING

Air Handling Units

Ductwork
Chillers
Evaporators
Cooling Towers
Water Tank and Pump Room
Piping, Valves & Insulation etc.

38

CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY

Fire Alarm Panels

Manual Call Points
Automatic Fire Detectors
Hydrant and hose Reels,
Location Plan & Signs etc.

39

CONCLUSION

There is no single method to provide protection to

passengers and to avoid material damages in fire
emergencies.
The checklist pertaining to ventilation and airconditioning is useful for planning the competence of
materials to be used in particular site condition.
Also, the checklist for fire safety provides minimum
safety measures to be followed in fire fighting
mechanism.
The work helps in planning the preliminary design
parameters related to above aspects with the help of
checklist that can be used as reference for the tunnel
projects in general.
The work presented is one of the important aspects
for the tunnel designer and contractor from execution
and safety point of view.

40