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Circuits
Chapter 11
Introduction
Introduction
Introduction
Introduction
Introduction
Purpose
Purpose
Content
Amplifiers
Amplifiers
Amplifiers
Operational Amplifiers
Differential amplifier
Operational amplifier
Operational amplifier
Operational amplifier
Op-Amps - properties
Op-Amps - properties
Op-amps - properties
cm
Inanidealamplifierthisisinfinite.
AgoodamplifierwillhaveaCMRRthatisvery
high
Op-amps - properties
Op-amps - properties
Bandwidth of op-amp
Op-amps - properties
Op-amps - properties
Op-amps - properties
Op-amps - properties
Op-amps - properties
Op-amps - properties
The TLC27L2C is a dual, low power opamp, suited for battery operated devices
Part of a series of amplifiers using FETs
as input transistors TLC27L2C
Inverting op-amp
Non-inverting op-amp
Inverting op-amp
Inthecaseshownherethisisexactly10
Inverting op-amp
Hereitisequalto1k.
Ifahigherresistanceisneeded,largerresistancesmightbe
needed
Or,perhaps,adifferentamplifierwillbeneeded
(noninvertingamplifier)
Inverting op-amp
Openloopoutputimpedance
OL
AOListheopenloopgainaslistedonthedatasheet
Openloopgainistheopenloopgainatthefrequencyat
whichthedeviceisoperated
Inverting op-amp
10000
75
1000
Thebandwidthisalsoinfluencedbythefeedback:
unitygainfrequency
BW
Non-inverting amplifier
Forthecircuitshown,thisis11
Thegainisslightlylargerthanforthenoninverting
amplifierforthesamevaluesofR.
Themaindifferencehoweverisininputimpedance.
Non-inverting amplifier
op
ol
Ropistheinputimpedanceoftheopampasgiveninthe
specsheet
Aolistheopenloopgainoftheamplifier.
Assuminganopenloopimpedanceof1M(modest
value)andanopenloopgainof106,wegetaninput
impedanceof1011.(almostideal)
Non-inverting amplifier
Voltage follower
The input impedance now is very large and equal to:
R
op
ol
Theoutputimpedanceisverysmallandequalto:
Openloopoutputimpedance
R
OL
Voltage follower
Instrumentation amplifier
Instrumentation amplifier
Instrumentation amplifier
2
A
Inacommercialinstrumentationamplifierall
resistancesareinternalandproduceagainusually
around100.
Raisexternalandcanbesetbytheusertoobtainthe
gainrequired.
Instrumentation amplifier
Themainuseofthisamplifieristoobtainanoutput
proportionaltodifferencebetweeninputs.
Importantindifferentialsensors,especiallywhen
onesensorisusedtosensethestimulusandan
identicalsensorisusedforreference(suchaswhen
temperaturecompensationisneeded)
Instrumentation amplifier
Charge amplifier
C0isthecapacitanceconnectedacrosstheinvertinginput.
Charge amplifier
Ineffectthechargegeneratedattheinputisamplified
Charge amplifier
Charge amplifier
Current amplifier
Current amplifier
Usefulwithverylowimpedancesensors.
Maybeusedwiththermocoupleswhoseimpedance
canbetriviallylow.
Theymaybeconnecteddirectly(rthenrepresents
theresistanceofthethermocouple).
Theoutputisadirectfunctionofthecurrentthe
thermocoupleproduceswhichcanbefairlylarge
The comparator
The comparator
The comparator
Power amplifiers
Thatis,theamplifieriscapableofboostingthe
powerlevelofasignaltomatchtheneedsofan
actuator.
Power amplifiers
Power amplifiers
Class B amplifier
Class B amplifier
Class B amplifier
Class B amplifier
PWM amplifiers
PWM amplifiers
PWM driving
Threshold digitization
Threshold digitization
Threshold digitization
Comparator threshold
digitization
Threshold digitization
Threshold digitization
Threshold digitization
V/F conversion
in
RC
ref
RC
T
V
in
ref
RC
Inaddition,afixedfrequencyclockisturnedonatthe
beginningofthedischargecycleandoffattheendofthe
dischargecycle.SinceTandTareknownandthecounter
knowsexactlyhowmanypulseshavebeencounted,this
countisthedigitalrepresentationoftheinputvoltage.
Aschematicdiagramofadualslopeconverterbasedonthese
principlesisshowninFigure11.21.
Successive approximation
A/D
Bridge circuits
Thebridgeissaidtobebalancedif
Z
=
Z
Underthiscondition,theoutputvoltageiszero.
=
d
=
d
i
2
Summingupgivesthebridgesensitivity
d
=
V
=
V
Or:
=
V
, if
4
Temperature compensation of
bridges
Bridge output
Bridge output
500
V
5
500
500
Mostsensorswillproduceamuchsmallerchangein
impedance
Somesortofamplificationwillbenecessary.
Theopampdiscussedaboveisidealforthis
purpose.
Therearemanywaysthiscanbeaccomplished.Two
methodsareshowninFigure11.25.
Amplified bridge
Active bridge
Amplified bridge
out
Thiscircuitprovidesanamplificationof(1+n)but
requiresthatthevoltageonthebridgebefloating
Active bridge
out
Thiscircuitprovidesbuffering(higherinput
impedance,loweroutputimpedance).
Data transmission
Data transmission
Data transmission
Data transmission
Data transmission
Data transmission
In such cases the analog signal must be
transferred to the controller.
A number of methods have been developed for
this purpose.
Three of these methods, suitable for use with
resistive sensors, or with passive sensors are
discussed next
Transmission to actuators
Transmission to actuators
Power supplies
Power supplies
DC to DC converters
Current sources
The generation of constant current can take
various levels of complexity.
One can resort to something as simple as a
large resistor in series with a power supply
In this configuration the current is not constant
but rather varies because the resistance of the
sensor
More accurate methods of current generation
are needed for higher accuracy requirements.
Current sources
A simple constant current source can be
built based on the properties of FETs
Shown in Figure 11.31.
As long as the voltage across the FET is
above its pinch-off voltage (Vp), the current
is constant and equals (Vcc-Vp)/R
Vp is constant for any given FET
2N5458JFET
2N5458JFET
R
R
33
33
Current sources
R
R
L
L
Current sources
Current sources
Current sources
Voltage references
Voltage references
Oscillators
Oscillators
Oscillators
1.
Crystal oscillators
Structure of a crystal
A 1 MHz crystal
RC Oscillators
RC oscillators
RC oscillators
RC oscillator
LC oscillator
Sinusoidal LC oscillator
Sinusoidal LC oscillator
Inherent noise
Inherent noise
Inherent noise
2
n
kTR
kistheBoltzmanconstant(k=1.38x1023J/K),
TisthetemperatureinK,
Ristheresistancein
fisthebandwidthinHz.
Inherent noise
Inherent noise
Shot noise:
Produced in semiconductors when dc current
flows by random collisions of electrons and atoms:
sn
5.7
Preferenceisforlowercurrentsinasmuchasthis
noiseisconcerned.
Inherent noise
Pink noise:
Unlike white noise has higher energy at low
frequencies.
A particular problem with sensors which tend to
operate at low frequencies (slowly varying
signals).
The noise spectral density is 1/f and at low
frequencies it may be larger than all other
sources of noise.
Inherent noise
Interference
Interference
Thermal sources (
Vibrations
gravitational forces
acceleration and others,
temperature variations
Seebeck effect in conductors
Interference
Interference
Interference
Interference
Interference
[1
Thesecondsensorsensesonlythetemperatureand
producesavoltageV2
V
[1
V0canbeassumedconstant(i.e.itisonly
dependentontemperaturechange)
Interference
=
V
SinceV0isindependentofthesensedstimulus,the
ratioisalsoindependentofthenoise.
Thisiscalledaratiometricmethodandismost
suitableforthistypeofnoise
Interference
Interference - capacitive
coupling
Interference - capacitive
coupling
Electrostatic shielding
Interference - capacitive
coupling
Interference
Mechanical noise