Photovoltaic Components and

System Configurations
Dave Click
Florida Solar Energy Center
January 26, 2009

Solar Photovoltaic
System (SPS)
Solar Photovoltaic System (690.2)
The total components and subsystems that, in
combination, convert solar energy into electrical
energy suitable for connection to a utilization load.
energy
source

load
utilization

inversion &
conditioning

PV Array

Inverter
Charger
Controller

load
center

energy
distribution

energy
conversion

energy
storage

battery

electric
utility
network

Solar Photovoltaic System

(SPS) Components
PV Array: An electrical assembly of photovoltaic modules that
convert sunlight to DC electricity.
Inverter: A device that converts DC power from batteries or PV
arrays into utility-grade AC power.
Energy Storage: Electrical or other storage devices sometimes
used to store energy produced by PV arrays for later consumption.
System Charge Control: A device used to protect batteries from
overcharge and overdischarge, and sometimes to provide load
control functions.
Load: Energy consuming electrical appliances served by the
system.
Balance of System (BOS) Components: Other equipment
required to control, conduct, protect, distribute power and
structurally support the system.

Cells, Modules and Arrays

The basic
building blocks
for PV systems
include cells,
modules, and
arrays.

Solar Cell
Solar Cell (690.2)
The basic photovoltaic device that generates DC electricity
when exposed to light. A typical silicon solar cell produces
about 0.5 volt and up to 6 amps and 3 watts for larger area
cells.
electrical load
(-)

sun
typical crystalline silicon
photovoltaic cell

DC current flow
boron-doped (P-type)
silicon layer ~ 250 x 10-6 m

phosphorous-doped (N-type)
silicon layer ~ 0.3 x 10-6 m

(+)

Single Crystal Cells

Single crystal (or

monocrystalline)
silicon wafers are
sawn from grown
cylindrical ingots.

Polycrystalline Silicon

Polycrystalline (or
multicrystalline)
silicon wafers are
sawn from cast
rectangular
ingots.

Cell Fabrication

Several steps
are involved in
turning silicon
wafers into PV
cells.

Establishing the P-N Junction

Diffusion of
phosphorous
gas creates a
thin n-type
semiconductor
layer over the
entire surface
of a p-type
wafer.
9

Variety of Cell Types

The different
materials,
processes, and
manufacturing
steps produce a
range of PV cell
types.

Cell Current and Voltage Output

An I-V curve
illustrates the
electrical
output profile
of a PV cell,
module, or
array.
1

Photovoltaic Modules
Module (690.2)
A complete, environmentally protected unit consisting of solar
cells, optics, and other components, exclusive of tracker,
designed to generate DC power when exposed to sunlight.

60-Watt polycrystalline
module

75-Watt monocrystalline
module

Module Packaging
Modules are
constructed
from PV cells
surrounded by
several layers
of protective
materials.

Module Shapes and Sizes

Modules are
available in several
sizes and shapes,
including squares,
rectangles,
triangles, flexible
units, and shingles.

PV Module Markings
690.51 Modules
Modules shall be marked with identification of
terminals or leads as to polarity, maximum
overcurrent device rating for module protection, and
with the following ratings:
(1) Open-circuit voltage
(2) Operating voltage
(3) Maximum permissible system voltage
(4) Operating current
(5) Short-circuit current
(6) Maximum power
1

PV Module Nameplate
Module nameplates
must include
performance ratings
for the module and
may include other
information used to
design a PV system.

Module Performance
Specifications
Module performance only has meaning when
the rating conditions are specified.
All PV modules are rated at Standard Test
Conditions (STC):
Irradiance = 1000 W/m2
Cell temperature = 25oC
Module I-V parameters at STC must be on the
module listing label per NEC 690.51.

Irradiance
Effect of Irradiance

Module Current (amps)

6
5
4

dir
,
r
a
Cle

3
2

c
ire
d
n
y, i
d
u
Clo

1
0
0

100

200

300

ec

t
gh
i
l
un
ts

t
gh
i
l
un
ts

400

500

600

700

Irradiance (W/m2)

800

900 1000 1100

Temperature and PV
Voltage (Example)
Module Voltage at 25 degrees: 17.1 volts
Temperature Coefficient: -0.077 V/deg C
Module Voltage at 55 degrees: 14.8 volts

Similar PV Devices in
Series
When similar devices are connected in series, the
voltages add and the current is the same as one device.

Pos (+)

C u rren t (A )

Pos (+)

(-)

(+)

Neg (-)

V = V A + VB
I = I A = IB
Neg
(-)

A, B
Voltage (V)

A+B

Similar PV Devices in
Parallel

C u rren t (A )

When similar devices are connected in parallel, the

individual currents add, while the voltage is the same as
for one device.
A+B
A, B

V = V A = VB
I = I A + IB

B
Voltage (V)

Neg
(-)

Pos (+)

Photovoltaic Panels
Panel (690.2)
A collection of modules mechanically fastened
together, wired, and designed to provide a field
installable unit.

PV Panel
Several modules
may be connected
together to form a
panel, which is
installed as a
preassembled unit.

Photovoltaic Arrays
Array (690.2)
A mechanical integrated assembly of modules or
panels with a support structure and foundation,
tracker, and other components, as required, to form a
direct-current power-producing unit.

PV Array

An array is a
group of PV
modules
integrated as a
single powergenerating unit.

Photovoltaic Cells, Modules,

Panels and Arrays

cell

module

array

panel
2

Identification of Solar Photovoltaic

System Components
Photovoltaic source circuits

Fuses

Photovoltaic
output circuit

Solar cells
Module
Panel
Array

Variety of Inverters

Inverters are
available in
many different
configurations
and ratings.

Amplitude

Alternating Current
Waveforms

square wave
sine wave
modified square wave
Time

One Cycle
2

Stand-alone Inverters
Stand-alone inverters are connected to the battery
bank.

Utility-Interactive Inverters
Interactive inverters are connected to the PV array.

Utility-Interactive Inverters:
Power Conditioning Units
PV array maximum power point tracking (MPPT)
Power inversion from DC to AC
Wave-shaping and voltage regulation
Synchronous utility interfacing
System control and monitoring
Protective and safety features
Fuses, disconnects and surge arrestors on AC and
DC sides.
Automatic disconnect when the utility is down.
Must comply with IEEE 1547 and UL 1741.
3

Power Conditioning Units

Power conditioning
units are inverters
that also perform
other power control
and conversion
functions.

Inverter Efficiency

Most sine wave

inverters maintain
high efficiency
over a wide
operating-power
range.

Inverter Disconnects

Inverter
enclosures may
include protective
devices such as
disconnects.

Inverter Data Displays

Inverter interfaces include on-board screens,
remote data monitors, and computerized data
acquisition and processing software.

AC Modules

AC modules
include small
inverters in
place of the DC
junction box.

Batteries
Batteries are
collections of cells
that produce
electricity through
electrochemical
reactions. Cells can
be configured into
batteries of many
different shapes and
sizes.
3

Battery Packaging

Many components
are common to
various battery
designs.

Battery Discharging

Electrochemical
reactions within a
cell produce a flow
of electrons from
the negative
terminal to the
positive terminal.
4

Battery Charging

The charging
reaction within a
cell is the reverse
of the discharge
reaction.

Variety of Batteries

Batteries are
divided into
classes based
on discharge
and cycle
characteristics.

Absorbed Glass Mat Batteries

AGM batteries
include fiberglass
mats to absorb the
electrolyte and
separate the plates.

Batteries in Series
Connecting batteries in series increases system
voltage.

Batteries in Parallel
Connecting batteries in parallel increases system
capacity.

Batteries in Series and Parallel

Series and parallel connections can be combined
to produce a desired system voltage level and
capacity.

Charge Controllers
Charge controllers manage interactions and energy
flows between a PV array, battery, and electrical
load.

Protecting the Battery via

Charge Regulation
Charge controllers
protect batteries
from over charging
by terminating or
limiting charging
current.

Protecting the Battery via

Load Management

Charge controllers
protect batteries
from over
discharging by
controlling
discharging current.

Status Displays
Most charge
controllers include
displays or LEDs to
indicate battery
voltage, state of
charge, and/or
present operating
mode.
5

Shunt Control

Shunt charge
controllers control
charging current
by short-circuiting
the array.

Series Control

Series charge
controllers
control charging
current by
opening the
circuit from the
array.
5

Photovoltaic System
Types & Configurations
Stand-Alone Systems
Operate independent of the utility grid and include
hybrid systems.

Utility-Interactive Systems
Sometimes called grid-connected or grid-tied
systems.
Operate connected to (i.e., in parallel with) the utility
grid. A bi-directional interface is required.

Bi-Modal Systems
May operate in either utility-interactive or stand-alone
mode, but not concurrently.
5

Direct Coupled Configuration

The simplest type of

stand-alone PV
configuration is the
direct-coupled system,
consisting of only an
array and a DC load.

Self Regulated System Configuration

Self-regulating standalone PV systems

avoid the complexity
of adding charge
control components
by precisely sizing the
battery and array.

Regulated Configurations
Systems with charge
control regulate the
charging current into
the battery. Regulation
may involve
disconnecting or
dissipating the current
inside the controller or
diverting the excess
current into an auxiliary
load.
5

Stand-Alone PV System with

Batteries and Charge Control
Charge control is required whenever the load is variable
and the battery is not oversized.
Protects the battery from overcharge and overdischarge,
and may provide load control functions.
PV Array

Charge
Controller

DC Load

Battery

Stand-Alone Configurations
with AC Loads
Stand-alone systems with AC loads must include an
inverter, which draws DC power from the battery bank and
changes it to AC power for distribution.

Hybrid Systems

Hybrid systems
include power
sources other
than the PV
array and do not
interact with the
utility grid.

Utility-Interactive System
A utility-interactive system is controlled by the inverter,
which adds AC power converted from DC power to
the utility grid power at the main AC power distribution
panel.

Interactive System
Interactive System (690.2)
A solar photovoltaic system that operates in parallel
with and may deliver power to an electrical
production and distribution network. For the
purposes of this definition, an energy storage
subsystem of a solar photovoltaic system, such as a
battery, is not another electrical production source.

Basic Utility-Interactive or
Grid-Connected PV System
AC Loads

PV Array

Inverter/Power
Conditioner

Distribution
Panel

Electric
Utility

Net and Dual Metering

Utility-interactive systems have either net-metering
or dual-metering arrangements for exporting
electricity to the utility grid.

Interactive System

Photovoltaic output circuit

Inverter input circuit
Inverter output circuit

Photovoltaic source
circuits

Electric production
and distribution
network connection
Inverter

Bimodal System Configurations

Bimodal systems
can act like either
a utility-interactive
or a stand-alone
system.

Sun Paths for 30o N Latitude

June 22: 12 noon
September 23 and March 21: 12 noon

Zenith

10 am

2 pm

8 am
2 pm

4 pm

10 am
8 am
East

December 21: 12 noon

10 am
8 am

2 pm

North
4 pm

Point
O

South

4 pm

West

Sun Position - Definitions

Zenith
90 deg altitude

East
Altitude Angle ( )
Azimuth Angle ( )

North
Point O

South
0 deg azimuth

West

Array Orientation
Ideally: face array south at (Latitude * 0.9) degrees
(Not critical to face south at 27 for Gainesville)

Solar Pathfinder

Shading Concerns

Shading Concerns
Same tree, four years later!