Choice of Separator for

Heterogeneous Mixtures

Introduction
Separators are required before and after the
reactor.
If the mixture to be separated is homogeneous,
separation can only be performed by the creation
of another phase within the system or by the
addition of a mass separation agent.
A number of physical properties can be exploited
to achieve the separation of homogeneous
mixtures

Introduction
If a heterogeneous or multiphase mixture needs
to be separated, then separation can be done
physically by exploiting the differences in density
between the phases.
Separation of the different phases of a
heterogeneous mixture should be carried out
before homogeneous separation.
Phase separation tends to be easier and should
be done first.

Introduction
The phase separations likely to be
carried out are:
Gasliquid (or vaporliquid)
Gassolid (or vaporsolid)
Liquidliquid (immiscible)
Liquidsolid
Solidsolid.

Introduction
The principal methods for the separation
of heterogeneous mixtures are:
Settling and sedimentation
Inertial and centrifugal separation
Electrostatic precipitation
Filtration
Scrubbing
Flotation
Drying.

SETTLING AND
SEDIMENTATION
In settling processes, particles are
separated from a fluid by
gravitational forces acting on the
particles.
The particles can be liquid drops or
solid particles.
The fluid can be a gas, vapor or
liquid.

Gravity settler for the separation of

gasliquid and vaporliquid mixtures

Key Points
The velocity of the gas or vapor through
the vessel must be less than the
settling velocity of the liquid drops.
When a particle falls under the influence
of gravity, it will accelerate until the
combination of the frictional drag in the
fluid and buoyancy force balances the
opposing gravitational force.

Equations
If the particle is assumed to be a
rigid sphere, at this terminal velocity,
a force balance gives

Equations

Equations

Gas-Liquid Separation
For gasliquid and vaporliquid separations, there
will be a range of particle droplet sizes.
It is normally not practical to separate droplets less
than 100 m diameter in such a simple device.
Thus, the design basis for simple settling devices of
the type illustrated in Figure is usually taken to be
a vessel in which the velocity of the gas (or vapor)
is the terminal settling velocity for droplets of 100
m diameter.

Gravity settler for the separation of

liquidliquid mixtures.

Liquid-Liquid Separation
Figure shows a simple gravity settler or decanter for
removing a dispersed liquid phase from another liquid
phase.
The horizontal velocity must be low enough to allow the
low-density droplets to rise from the bottom of the vessel
to the interface and coalesce and for the high density
droplets to settle down to the interface and coalesce.
The decanter is sized on the basis that the velocity of the
continuous phase should be less than the terminal
settling velocity of the droplets of the dispersed phase.

Liquid-Liquid Separation

Decanters are normally designed for a droplet size of

150 m, but can be designed for droplets down to 100
m.
Dispersions of droplets smaller than 20 m tend to be
very stable.

Gravity settler for the separation of

fluidsolid mixtures.

Solid-Liquid Separation
The efficiency with which the particles of
a given size will be collected from the
simple setting devices in is given by:
= h/H
where = efficiency of collection ()
h = settling distance of the particles during
the
residence time in the device (m)
H = height of the setting zone in the device
(m)

Solid-Liquid Separation
When high concentrations of particles are to be settled,
the surrounding particles interfere with individual
particles.
This is particularly important when settling high
concentrations of solid particles in liquids.
For such hindered settling, the viscosity and fluid
density terms in Equations can be modified to allow for
this.
The walls of the vessel can also interfere with settling.

Solid-Liquid Separation
The separation of suspended solid particles from a
liquid by gravity settling into a clear fluid and a slurry
of higher solids content is called sedimentation.
A sedimentation device known as a thickener, the
prime function of which is to produce a more
concentrated slurry.
When the prime function of the sedimentation is to
remove solids from a liquid rather than to produce a
more concentrated solidliquid mixture, the device is
known as a clarifier.

Thickener

Simple gravity settling

classifier

Problem
Solid particles with a size greater than 100 m are to be
separated from larger particles in a settling chamber.
The flowrate of gas is 8.5 m3 s1. The density of the
gas is 0.94 kg m3 and its viscosity 2.18 105 kg
m1 s1. The density of the particles is 2780 kg m3.
Calculate the settling velocity, assuming the particles
are spherical.
The settling chamber is to be box-shaped, with a
rectangular cross section for the gas flow. If the length
and breadth of the settling chamber are equal, what
should the dimensions of the chamber be for 100%
removal of particles greater than 100 m?

INERTIAL AND CENTRIFUGAL

SEPARATION
Sometimes gravity separation may be too
slow because of the closeness of the
densities of the particles and the fluid.
Small particle size leading to low settling
velocity.
In the case of liquidliquid separations,
because of the formation of a stable
emulsion.

Inertial Separators
Inertial or momentum separators improve
the efficiency of gassolid settling devices
by giving the particles downward
momentum, in addition to the gravitational
force.
The design of inertial separators for the
separation of gassolid separations is
usually based on collection efficiency
curves,

Inertial separators

Collection Efficiency Curve

Centrifugal Separator
Use of centrifugal forces increases the force
acting on the particles.
Particles that do not settle readily in gravity
settlers often can be separated from fluids by
centrifugal force.
The simplest type of centrifugal device is the
cyclone separator for the separation of solid
particles or liquid droplets from a gas or vapor.

Cyclone Separator

Hydrocyclone
The same principle can be used for the separation of
solids from a liquid in a hydrocyclone.
Although the principle is the same, whether a gas or
vapor is being separated from a liquid, the geometry
of the cyclone will change accordingly.
Hydrocyclones can also be used to separate mixtures
of immiscible liquids, such as mixtures of oil and
water.
For the separation of oil and water, the water is denser
than the oil and is thrown to the wall by the
centrifugal force leaving from the conical base. The oil

Centrifuge
A cylindrical bowl is rotated to produce the centrifugal
force.

Centrifuge
The cylindrical bowl is shown rotating
with a feed consisting of a liquidsolid
mixture fed at the center.
The feed is thrown outward to the walls
of the container.
The particles settle horizontally
outward.

Centrifuge
Different arrangements are possible to
remove the solids from the bowl.
Two liquids having different densities are
separated by the centrifuge.
The more dense fluid occupies the outer
periphery, since the centrifugal force is
greater on the more dense fluid.

ELECTROSTATIC
PRECIPITATION
Electrostatic precipitators are
generally used to separate
particulate matter that is easily
ionized from a gas stream.
This is accomplished by an
electrostatic field produced between
wires or grids and collection plates
by applying a high voltage between
the two

ESP

ESP
A corona is established around the negatively
charged electrode.
As the particulate-laden gas stream passes
through the space, the corona ionizes molecules
of gases such as O2 and CO2 present in the gas
stream.
These charged molecules attach themselves to
particulate matter, thereby charging the
particles.

ESP
The oppositely charged collection
plates attract the particles.
Particles collect on the plates and are
removed by vibrating the collection
plates mechanically, thereby
dislodging particles that drop to the
bottom of the device.

ESP
Electrostatic precipitation is most effective when
separating particles with a high resistivity.
The operating voltage typically varies between
25 and 45 kV or more, depending on the design
and the operating temperature.
The application of electrostatic precipitators is
normally restricted to the separation of fine
particles of solid or liquid from a large volume of
gas.

FILTRATION
In filtration, suspended solid particles in a
fluid are removed by passing the mixture
through a porous medium that retains the
particles and passes the fluid (filtrate).
The solid can be retained on the surface of
the filter medium, which is cake filtration,
or captured within the filter medium, which
is depth filtration.

Plate and frame filter

Bag Filter

Belt Filter

Rotary Vacuum Filter

Key Points
filter aids, which are particles of porous solid, can
be added to the mixture to aid the filtration
process.
When filtering solids from a liquid, a thickener is
often used upstream of filtration to concentrate
the mixture prior to filtration.
When separating solid particles from a liquid
filtrate, if the solid filter cake is a product, rather
than a waste, then it is usual to wash the filter
cake to remove the residual filtrate from the filter
cake.
The washing of the filter cake after filtration takes

Deep Bed Filtration

Rather than using a cloth, a granular medium consisting of
layers of particulate solids on a support grid can be used.
Downward flow of the mixture causes the solid particles to
be captured within the medium.
Such deep-bed filters are most commonly used to remove
small quantities of solids from large quantities of liquids.
To release the solid particles captured within the bed, the
flow is periodically reversed, causing the bed to expand
and release the particles that have been captured.
Around 3% of the throughput is needed for this
backwashing.

Membrane Filtration
Whereas the liquidsolid filtration processes described so
far can separate particles down to a size of around 10 m.
For smaller particles that need to be separated, a porous
polymer membrane can be used.
This process, known as microfiltration, retains particles
down to a size of around 0.05 m.
A pressure difference across the membrane of 0.5 to 4 bar
is used.
The two most common practical arrangements are spiral
wound and hollow fiber.

SCRUBBING
Scrubbing with liquid (usually water)
can enhance the collection of
particles when separating gassolid
mixtures.
Scrubbing is carried out in packed
bed, spray and venturi scrubbers.

Packed Bed Scrubber

Spray Scrubber

Venturi Scrubber

Key Points
Packed columns and plate columns
encounter problems of clogging.
Spray system is less prone to fouling.
The design uses a tangential inlet to
create a swirl to enhance the
separation.

Venturi Scrubber
In venturi scrubber liquid is injected into the throat of
the venturi, where the velocity of the gas is highest.
The gas accelerates the injected water to the gas
velocity, and breaks up the liquid droplets into a
relatively fine spray.
The particles are then captured by the fine droplets.
Very high collection efficiencies are possible with
Venturi scrubbers.

FLOTATION
Flotation is a gravity separation
process that exploits the differences
in the surface properties of particles.
Gas bubbles are generated in a liquid
and become attached to solid
particles or immiscible liquid droplets,
causing the particles or droplets to
rise to the surface.

FLOTATION

This is used to separate mixtures of

solidsolid particles after dispersion in a liquid,
solid particles already dispersed in a liquid
liquidliquid mixtures of finely divided immiscible
droplets.

The liquid used is normally water and the

particles of solid or immiscible liquid will attach
themselves to the gas bubbles if they are
hydrophobic (e.g. oil droplets dispersed in
water).

FLOTATION
The bubbles of gas can be generated by
three methods:
dispersion, in which the bubbles are injected
directly by some form of sparging system;
dissolution in the liquid under pressure and
then liberation in the flotation cell by
reducing the pressure;
electrolysis of the liquid.

FLOTATION
Flotation is an important technique in mineral processing,
where it is used to separate different types of ores.
When used to separate solidsolid mixtures, the material
is ground to a particle size small enough to liberate
particles of the chemical species to be recovered.
The mixture of solid particles is then dispersed in the
flotation medium, which is usually water.
The mixture is then fed to a flotation cell

Flotation Cell

FLOTATION
Gas is also fed to the cell where gas bubbles
become attached to the solid particles, thereby
allowing them to float to the surface of the liquid.
The solid particles are collected from the surface
by an overflow weir or mechanical scraper.
The separation of the solid particles depends on
the different species having different surface
properties such that one species is preferentially
attached to the bubbles.

Chemicals Added
Modifiers are added to control the pH of the
separation. These could be acids, lime, sodium
hydroxide, and so on.
Collectors are water-repellent reagents that are
added to preferentially adsorb onto the surface of
one of the solids.
Coating or partially coating the surface of one of the
solids renders the solid to be more hydrophobic and
increases its tendency to attach to the gas bubbles.

Chemicals Added
Activators are used to activate the mineral
surface for the collector.
Depressants are used to preferentially attach to
one of the solids to make it less hydrophobic and
decrease its tendency to attach to the gas
bubbles.
Frothers are surface-active agents added to the
flotation medium to create a stable froth and
assist the separation.

Dissolved air flotation

When separating low-density solid
particles or oil droplets from water,
the most common method used is
dissolved-air flotation.
A typical arrangement is shown in
Figure

Dissolved Air Flotation

Dissolved Air Flotation

This shows some of the effluent water from the unit
being recycled, and air being dissolved in the recycle
under pressure.
The pressure of the recycle is then reduced, releasing
the air from solution as a mist of fine bubbles.
This is then mixed with the incoming feed that enters
the cell.
Low-density material floats to the surface with the
assistance of the air bubbles and is removed.

DRYING
Drying refers to the removal of water from a
substance through a whole range of processes,
including distillation, evaporation and even physical
separations such as centrifuges.
Here, consideration is restricted to the removal of
moisture from solids into a gas stream (usually air)
by heat, namely, thermal drying.
Some of the types of equipment for removal of water
also can be used for removal of organic liquids from
solids.

Tunnel Dryer

Rotary Drum Dryer

Drum Dryer

Spray Dryer

Choice of Dryer
Choice between dryers is usually
based on practicalities such as
Materials handling characteristics,
Product decomposition,
Product physical form (e.g. if a
porous granular material is required),
and so on.

Choice of Dryer
Also, dryer efficiency can be used to compare
the performance of different dryer designs. This
is usually defined as follows:
Dryer efficiency = heat of vaporization/total heat
consumed
If the total heat consumed is from an external
utility (e.g. mains steam), then a high efficiency
is desirable, even perhaps at the expense of a
high capital cost.