INTRODUCTION

ABOUT THE EXCHANGE

In the field of, atelephone exchangeortelephone switchis a system of

electronic components that connects telephone calls. Acentral officeis the
physical building used to houseequipment including telephone switches,
which make"work" in the sense of making connections and relaying the
speech information.

TYPES OF EXCHANGE

Manual exchange

Strowger exchange

Cross bar exchange

Electronics exchange (analog and digital exchange)

ELECTRONICS EXCHANGE

It is based on the automatic control by stored programmed in computer

linked to it. It cover all the main drawbacks of above mentioned exchange. It
may be digital or analog but mostly digital electronics exchanges are now
common. It base on the principal time division switching or space division
switching. Space division switching is used for analog electronics exchange
and time division switching is used for digital exchange.

Space Division switching System

In a space Division Switching system, a continuous physical path is set up

between input and output terminations. This path is separate for each
connection and is held for the entire duration of the call. Path for different
connections is independent of each other. Once a continuous path has been
established., Signals are interchanged between the two terminations. Such a
switching network can employ either metallic or electronic cross points.
Previously, usage of metallic cross-points using reed relays and all were
favored. They have the advantage of compatibility with the existing line and
trunk signaling conditions in the network.

Time Division Switching System

In Time Division Switching, a number of calls share the same path on time
division sharing basis. The path is not separate for each connection, rather, is
shared sequentially for a fraction of a time by different calls. This process is
repeated periodically at a suitable high rate. The repetition rate is 8 KHz, i.e.
once every 125 microseconds for transmitting speech on telephone network,
without any appreciable distortion. These samples are time multiplexed with
staggered samples of other speech channels, to enable sharing of one path by
many calls. The Time Division Switching was initially accomplished by Pulse
Amplitude.

DIGITAL CARD

It is programmed data card which is used for automatic control of call set up and call
termination as well as providing various services to the customer. There are three types of
digital card which are as follow

TERMINATION CARD

SERVICE CARD

CONTROL CARD

Termination card: its main aim to connect the customer on trunk line .other features of
terminating card is battery feed, over voltage protection,check weather call is STD or LOCAL or
ISD

Service card: the service like dial tone ,call waiting ,call confrencing etc is given by this card.

Control card: it is there to see whether the call has been established or not. If established then
requisite unit has been established or not.

Trunk Lines

The term Trunk Line in telecommunications refers to the high-speed

connection between telephone central offices

Trunk lines can contain thousands of simultaneous calls that have been
combined using. These thousands of calls are carried from one central office
to another where they can be connected to a de-multiplexing device and
switched through digital access cross connecting switches to reach the proper
exchange and local phone number

What is Trunking?

In telecommunications systems, trunking is the aggregation of multiple user

circuits into a single channel. The aggregation is achieved using some form of
multiplexing.

FIBER-OPTICS COMMUNICATION

FIBER OPTICS: The use and demand for optical fiber has grown tremendously
and optical-fiber applications are numerous. Telecommunication applications
are widespread, ranging from global networks to desktop computers. These
involve the transmission of voice, data, or video over distances of less than a
meter to hundreds of kilometers, using one of a few standard fiber designs in
one ofseveral cable designs.

OPTICAL FIBER

An optical fiber is a flexible, transparent fiber made of very pure glass(silica).

It acts as a wave guide or light pipe to transmit light between the two ends of the
fiber.

Optical fibers are widely used in fiber optics communication.

CONSTRUCTION OF OPTICAL FIBER

CORE
The fiber core is made of silica glass and is the central part of the optical cable that carries the light signal.
Diameter 8 micro meter for single mode fiber
- 50 meter or 62.5 meter for multi
mode fiber

CLADDING
The cladding is also made of glass, and is the layer that surrounds the fiber core. Together, they form a
single solid fiber of gless that is used for the light transmission. The diameter of the cladding is typically
125micro meter.

BUFFER

The is third layer, buffer coating are UV-curved urethane composite materials applied to the outside of the
fiber during the drawing process.

JACKET
The last layer is the cable jacket, which are comprised of different materials depending on the choice of
the end user and the application in use.

PRINCIPLE OF OPTICAL FIBER

An optical fiber is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide (nonconducting

waveguide) that transmits light along its axis, by the process of total internal
reflection.

OPTICAL FIBER FAULTS

The physical cable or connector damage

The cable physical damage

Partial failure of the connector

Line graph error

The local cable damage

RECTIFICATION OF OPTICAL FIBER

optical fiber has different types of fault, and techniques which are for
recovering the dameges of optical fiber are known as Rectification of optical
fiber.

Some specific instrument are used for rectification of optical fiber fault are
as follows:-

Optical time domain reflectometer(OTDR)

Fusion splicing

Optical power meter.

INSTRUMENT USED FOR RECTIFICTION OF

OPTICAL FIBER

An OTDR is an optoelectronic
instrument used to characterise an
optical fiber.

FUSION SPLICING
Fution splicing is the act of joining two optical
fiber end to end using heat.
The goal is to fuse the two fiber
together in such a way that light passing
though the fibers is not scattered or reflected
back by the splice.

optical power meter

An optical power meter (opm) is a
device used to measure the power
in an optical signal. The term
usually refers to a device for testing
average power in fiber optic
systems.
A typical OPM consists of a
calibrated sensor, measuring
amplifier and display. The sensor
primerily consists of a photodiode
selected for the appropriate range
of wavelenths and power levels.