ANATOMY OF THE CURRICULUM

Zeis, Robert S, (1976; 297-368)

1. AIMS, GOALS, AND OBJECTIVES

2. CONTENT
3. LEARNING ACTIVITY
4. EVALUATION

Zeis, Robert, S (1976; 301-304)

A. AIMS, GOALS, AND OBJECTIVE

1. Source of Aims, Goals, and Objectives
a) Empirical source
b) Philosophical source
c) Subject matter source
2. Levels of Objectives
a) Curriculum Aims
In general, curriculum aims are
statements
that describe expected the outcome
based
on some value scheme either consciously
or unconsciously borrowed from
philosophy
(Broudly 1971)

Zeis, Robert, S (1976;306)

b) Curriculum Goals
1) For our purpose curriculum goals will refer to school
out
come. While goals may refer to out come specified
at the
individual school level---they will more often reflect
goals of school system
2) Curriculum goals will vary as to their degree of
specificity, but in general will tend to be long range
in
nature and as targets, somewhat removed from
what
ordinarily is considered immediate classroom
assessment.
c) Curriculum Objectives
1) Curriculum objectives are defined here as the most
immediate specific out come of classroom
instruction
2) In general, they refer to the everyday business of

Zeis, Robert, S (1976;307)

3. Classification of Aimas, Goals, and Objectives

1. Aims
Broadly (1971;13-29) examined
statements of curriculum aims and found
that aims are generally, classifiable into
four related categories.
1) First: of these takes the form of a
central value
pattern. Aims in this category virtually
represent a philosophical position and
function
as the controlling mechanism to
determine, the
character of the aims in the other
three

2) Second; the remaining three types of aims are

classified as those proposing a preferred
social
organization; an explication of preferred
social
roles; and a preferred life style. Thus, if the
central value pattern were self-realization,
aims
of social organi- zation would most likely
specify
democartic social out come.
3) Further; aims specifying preferred social roles
would delineate the particular qualities
desirable in workers, family members,
citizens, etc. consonant with the individual/
democratic ideology

Zeis, Robert, S (1976; pp. 308-309

2. Goals and Objectives

Fact, Skill, and Attitudes: For many years, a
simple three category classification scheme
was the predominent device employed to
organize curriculum goals and objectives.
a) Fact: as generally interpreted, refer to the
assimilation of information, whether that
information is classifiable as units of data,
opinion, or complex concepts.
b) Skills: The ability to perform--- include such
processes as
reading, writing, critical thinking,
communicating, and a
host of other function.
c) Attitudes: In the schemeinvolve those
outcomes that point
to desired dispositions of feelings towards a

Zeis, Robert,S (1976;309-310)

3. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

a) The cognitive domain is divided info a
hirarchy of
six intellectual function. From the
lower to the
highest level, these six mental
abilities are:
1. Knowledge
2. Comprehension
3. Application
4. Analysis
5. Synthesis

b) Affective domain; The five

categories of the
affection domain, from lowers to
highest, are
as follows:
1) Receiving
2) Responding
3) Valuing
4) Organization
5) Characterization
c) The Psychomotor domain are:
1) Observing
2) Imitating
3) Practing
4) Adapting

Zeis, Robert, S (1976:324)

B. CONTENT

1. Conception of Content
a) Saylor and Alexandre (1968,p,169)
propose a definition which seems to
be adequately broad, but as the same
tima well delineated. They define
curriculum content as: Those facts,
observations, data, perception,
discerments, sensibilities, designs,
and solutions drawn from what the
minds of men have comprehended
from experience and those construct
of the mind that reorganize and
rearraenge these products of
experinece into lore, ideas, concepts,

b) Hyman (1973, p.4) defines content

as: Knowledge (I,e, fact,
explanation, principles, definitions),
skills and process (i.e. reading,
writing, calculating, dancing, critical
thinking,
decision making, communicating),
and value
(i.e. the beliefs, about matters
concerned with
good and bad, right and wrong,

Zeis, Robert, S (1976:338)

2. Scope of Curriculum Content

a) Common content: of traditional curricula
has consisted mainly of subjects such as
reading, writing, arithmatic, American
history, and English, ..Becker 1967; a
common curriculum for all general/liberal
education.
b) Special content; Curricula content which is
experienced by only a portion of the learning
may be aimed either at vocational training or
liberal education, content aimed at
vocational training usually is determined by
specialists in the are who make their decision
on the basic of (1) prior policy commitments
which establish the training program (2) the

3. Sequence of Curriculum Content

1) Sequenceis defined is the order which
curriculum content is presented. The concept
include the consideration of at least three
key questions (Leonard, 1959,p.70): (a) What
criteria shold determine the order of
succession of the materials of istruction (b)
What follow what and why What is the
most desirable time for learners to acquire
certain content
2) Sequence often is referred to as the
vertical organization of content to
distinguish it from the horizontal
organization, which concerns the
arrangement of content at a given level of

3) Smith, Stanley, and Shores (1957;p.233) Identify four

such principles:
a) Simple to complex principle are found most often in
such as biology,
chemistry, and grammer. Here,sequence is defined
as progression
from simple subordinate components to complex
structures, which
are composed of combinations of the subordinates
b) Prerequisite learning is common to subjects that
depend for their
exposition on laws and principle, such as geometry
and physics
c) The whole to part principle of sequence is most
common to
geography, whose study frequently begins with
the globe.
d) Chronological sequence is utilized as the natural

Zeis, Robert, S (1976:342-348)

4. Criteria for Selecting Content

Curriculum writers have identified a
large number of
such criteria----far too many enumerate
and discuss
here. Four of these, however, recur
often enough in
the literature fore us to identify as
commonly
acepted standard for selection. They
are :
Significance, Utility, Interest and

Zeis, Robert, S (1976:351)

C. LEARNING ACTIVITY
Learning Activity and Learning Experience
a) Essentially, the difference in meaning attched
to the term activity and experience is the
difference between intent and result
b) In curriclum constructiomn, planners can
readily prescribe the learning activities that
students will be engaged ini, but they can only
hope that these actities will result in the
desired experience
c) Term, learning activities and learning
experiences often are used interchangeablly in
the literature, a distinction needs to be made

d) We have choosen the term learning

activities
Because if most accurately describe
that which
curriculum planners specity in
constructing the third component of
the curriculum document
e) Learning experience, however, are no
important,
but properly merit consideration at
another point in the curriculum

Zeis, Robert, S (1976:352-353)

2. Relationship of Content and Learning Activities

a) In a functional curriculum (as distinguished from the
inert curriculum
document) content and learning acticities always
exist a unity
b) When student engage in studying, learning,
constructing, analyzing, feeling, thinking, ect. They
must utilize some content, i.e; they study something,
learn something, think somethink, and so on
c) Conversely, students cannot in any way deal with
content unless they are engaged in some activity
d) The separation, then, of content and learning
activities represents a way of dealing rationally with
reality, it is not by any means intended to be a
representation of reality
e) For purposes of curriculum planning i.e; the

Zeis, Robert, S (1976:354)

3. Curriculum Learning Activities versus Instructional

Learning Activities
a) The curriculum plan is implemented through the
medium of instruction,
b) If a teacher is more then a machine, more then an
automation following a highly specific set of directions,
It is proper that be exercise both his responsibility and
prerogative to determine the specific nature of the
instructional strategies needed to bring the inert
curriculum document to life as a functioning dynamic in
the classroom setting
c) the teacher will (among other things) formulate
the learning acticvities through which the curriculum
plan is translated into a functional curriculum,
aspecially as it relates to learning activities, inevitably
raises a troublesome question: Where do curriculum
learning activities properly leave off and instructional
learning activities begin?

Ornstein, Allan, C, and Hunkins, Francis, P,(1998;104)

The Eight Types of Learning (Robert gagne)

1) Signal learning; (classical conditioning, a
response to a give signal).
2) Stimulus response, (operant conditioning (S-R),
a response to a given stimulus)
3) Motor chains; (linking together two or more S-R
connection to form a more complex skill)
4) Verbal association; (linking together two more
words or ideas)
5) Multiple discrimination (responding in different
ways to different items of a particular set)
6) Concept: (reacting to stimuli in an abstract
way)
7) Rules; (chaining two or more stimulus
situations or concepts)
8) Problem solving; (combing known rules or

Ornstein, Allan, C, and Hunkins, Francis, P,(1998;109)

Piaget describes cognitive development in

terms of stages from birth to maturity. The
overall stages can be summarized as
follows:
1) Sensorimotor stage; (birth to age 2)
2) Preoperational stage; (age 2 to 7)
3) Concrete operations stage (ages 7 to
11)
4) Formal operations stage (age 11 or
ward)

Ornstein, Allan, C, and Hunkins, Francis, P,(1998;110-111)

Bruner considers that the act of learning

consists of three related processes, similar to
Piagets cognitive processes
1. Acquisirion is the grasping of new
information; it mainly corresponds to
assimilation
2.

Transformation is the individuals capacity

to process new information so as to trancend
or beyond it

3.

Rvaluation is the determination of wether

or not information has been processed in a
way that renders it appropriate for dealing

Ornstein, Allan, C, and Hunkins, Francis, P,(1998;111)

Kohlberg outlined six development types of moral

judgements grouped into
three moral levels or stages, corresponding to Piagets
cognitive stages of
development:
1. Preconventional level
(1) Children who do as they are told because they fear
punishment
(2) Children who realize that certain actions bring
rewards
2. Conventional level
(3) Children who seek their parents approval by being
nice
(4) Children who begin thinking in terms of rules
3. Postconventional level
(5) Children who are able to view morality in terms of
contractual obligations and democratically accepted
laws

Behaviorist
Thorndike

Low of Effect

When a connection between a situation and response is made, and it is

accompanied by a studying state of affairs, that connection is strengthened of
affair, the connection is weakened

PavlovWatson

Classical
Conditioning

Whenever a response is closely followed by the reduction of a drive, a

tendency will result for the stimulus to evoke that reaction on subsequent
occasions; association strength of the S-R bond depends on the conditioning
of the response and stimulus

Skinner

Operant
Conditioning

In contrast to classical conditioning, no specific or identifiable stimulus

consistently elicits operant behavior. Based on Thorndikes law of effect,
operant conditioning means that if an operant response is followed by a
reinforcing stimulus, the strength of the response is increased

Bandura

Observationa Behavior is best learned through observing and modeling. Emphsis is placed
l Learning
on vicarious, symbolic, and self regulatory processes

Gagne

Levels of
Learning

Eight type of learning are identified from simple to complex, modely

behavioral and a few cognitive they are based on orderly, prerequisite, and
cumulative processes of learning

Humanistic
Maslow

Human need

Six human needs related to survival and psychological well

being; the needs are hierarchical and serve to direct behavior

Rogers

Becoming a
person
freedom to
learn

Becoming a person means being open to experience,

developing trust, and accepting one self
Becoming a full person requires freedom to learn; the
learner is encouraged to be open, self-trusting, and
self accepting

Raths

Value
clarification

Analysis of personal preferences and moral issues to reveal

or clarify ones values that is, belief, attitudes, and opinion.

Cognitive
Gardner

Multiple
Intelligences

A cross cultural, expanded concept of what in

intelligence---such areas as linguisti, music, logical,
mathematical, spatial, body, kinesthetic, and personal.

Dewey

Reflective
thinking

Being in a situation, sensing a problem, clarifying it with

information, working out, sugested slution, and testing
the ideas by application

Ennis
Lipman
Sternberg

Critical
thinking

Teaching student howa to think, including forming

concept, generalization, cause effect relationships,
inferences, consistencies and contradiction

BrunnerPhenix

Structure of
Subject
Inquirydiscovery
Methods

The knowledge concept, and principle of a subject,

learning how things a related is learning the structure
of subject
A method or quality of thinking that use a body of
organized knowledge; the first methods tends to be
convergent and the second tends to be divergent.

Cognitive
Piaget

Cognitive
stages of
development
Assimilation,
accomodation
and equilibration

Four cognitive stages form a sequence of progresive mental

operation; the stages are hierarchical and increasingly more
complex
The incorporation of new experiences, the methods of
modifying new experiences to derive meaning, and the
process of blending new experiences into a systematic whole

Guilford

Structure of
intellect
Convergentdivergent
thinking

Three major dimension of thougt---content, operations, and products---each subdivided into several
factors combine and ineract to form 120 possible
factors
A qualitative methods thinking; the first corresponds with problem solving reflective thinking, and
the scientific method; the second corresponds with
creative thinking, intuitive thinking, dan the artistic
method.

Ornstein, Allan, C, and Hunkins, Francis, P,(1998;133)

Overview of Major Learning Theories

Behavioral Learning
We learn by doing and observing others
Reinforcement is essential for learning to
occur
Pratice (with feedvback) improve learning and
retention
Spced recalls are essential for remembering
information punishment
Learning proceeds from simple to complex
and part to whole behavior
Learning should proceed in small, step-bystep simple units
Learning Is hierarchical, based on sequential
readiness
Desired performance or learning outcome

Ornstein, Allan, C, and Hunkins, Francis, P,(1998;133)

Cognitive Development Learning

Cognitive stage of development are related to age
Cognitive development is sequential and based on
previous grouwth
The capacities of students are important; bright
student are capable of learning more and at a more
rapid rate then other student
Learning can be modified as a result of the interaction
of the self with the environment
Learning involves the assimilation of new experience
with prior experience
Learning is best achieved through active participation
in environment, the teacher can improve the
environment to stimulate learning
There are several components and types of intelligence
there is no one single indicator or type of behavior that
connotes intelligent behavior
Student learn best when they can generalize
information, that is, whole to part learning

Ornstein, Allan, C, and Hunkins, Francis, P,(1998;133)

Humanistic Learning
Teacher are sensitive to the students world,
not just the adult world
Learner are viewed as individuals, with diverse
needs, abilities and aptitudes
The learners self concept and self esteem are
considered as essential factors in learning
Learning is considered holistic, not just
cognitive, the act of learning involves, feeling,
and motor dependent skills
Learning is based on warm, friendly and
democratic student teacher interaction
coersive and etrict disciplinary measures are
minimized
The quality (or processes ) of learning is
considered as important ( in some cases more

 Students share ideas, work together,

and tutor and help each others,
homogenous grouping, academic
tracking, and competitive testing or
programs are minimized
Students and teachers plan together
the experiences or activities of the
curriculum
Students are given choice (with
limitation) and freedom (with
responsibilities); the extent of choice
and freedom is related to the maturity
level and age of student
Learning is based on life experiences,
discovery, exploring, and

Taba, Hilda,1962;85)

Classifies Types of Learning and behavior

Situation
(Spence,1959,pp 92-93)

1. Conditioning
2. Selective learning
3. Verbal or serial learning, which includes
the rote learning
4. Learning of skills, both perceptual and
motor
5. Symbolic learning, including reasoning
and thinking
6. Social learning, which involves the

Tyler,W (1949;63)

Meaning of The Term Learning

Experience
The terms learning experience refers
to the interaction between the
leanerand the external conditions in the
environment to which he can react
Learning takes place through the
active behavior of the student; it is
what he does that he learns; not what
the teacher does.

Tyler,W (1949;65-67)

General Principles in Selecting Learning

Experience
The first of these is that a given objective to
be attained, a student must have experiences
that give him an opportunity to practice the
kind of behavior implied by the objectives.
A Second general principle is that the learning
experiences must be such that the student
obtains satisfications from carrying on the
kind of behavior implied by the objectives
A Third general principle with regard to
learning experiences is that the reactions
desired in the experience are within the range
of possibility for the students involved
A Fourth general principle is that there are
many particular experiences that can be used

Tyler,Raplph, W (1949;68-82)

Characteristic Required of Effective

Learning Experiences to Attain These
objective
1. Learning experiences to develop skill
in thinking
2. Learning experiences helpful in
acquiring information
3. Learning experiences helpful in
developing social attitudes
4. Learning experiences helpful in

Mc.Neil, John, D (1990; 103-105)

Developing Learning Opportunities

Social reconstructional guidelaines for
developing learning
opportunities Teachers using this model stress
nine
consideration as they plan this opportunity:
1. Select an idea for a learning opportunity
2. Explore the idea
3. Plan for action
4. Test the idea or project for realness
5. Specify the instructional objectives that will
also be served by the project
6. Limit the scope of the learning opportunity
7. Involve others in the project
8. List the source of firshand information
needed

Mc.Neil, John, D (1990; 106)

Technological Guidelines for Developing

Learning Opportunities
These techological identify for stages for
developing learning
activities
1. Specify terminal objectives
2. Make a task analysis
3. Specify the intended population
4. Formulate rule for development of product.
These questions give direction to the
developer and determine the characteristics
of the product
a) Concept presentation
b) Respon mode
c) Eliciation of concept

Mc.Neil, John, D (1990; 107-108)

Humanistic Guidelines for Developing Learning

Opportunities
There Categories:
1. Emphasis teaching product: Instructional
plans, texbooks, course of study, and other
artigacts designed to shape learners in
specified ways are all seen as less important
than the actual teaching
2. Create on environment that will not impede
natural growth
3. Arranger situations in which learners
determine what they will learn

Mc.Neil, John, D (1990; 108-109)

Academicians Guidelines for Learning

Opportunities
They used five steps:
1. Choose organizing centers
2. Lay out the ordering of the centers
3. Develop suggested units of instruction
4. Recommend specific instructional
context
5. Recommend teaching strategies

Taba, Hilda, (1962;76)

Knowledge about the learner and learning is

relevan to making a host of curriculum decision.
A Curriculum is essentially a plan for learning
consisting as it does of goals for learning and
ways for attaining these goals, a curriculum plan
is a result of decision regarding three different
matters:
1. Selection and arragements of content
2. The choice of the learning experiences by
which this content
is to be manipulated and by which the
objectives not
achievable through content alone can be
attained

Taba, Hilda, (1962;199-205)

Principles to Guide the Formulation of

Objectives
1. A.statement of objectives should describe both
the kind of behavior experiences and the
content or context to which that behavior
applies
2. Complex objectives need to be stated
analytically and specifically enough so that
there is no doubt as to the kind of behavior
expected
3. Objectives should also be so formulated that
there are clear distictions among learning
experience required to attain different behavior
4. Objectives are development, representing roads
to travel rather than terminal points
5. Objectives should be realistic and should
include anly what can be translated into

Taba, Hilda, (1962;343)

Development of a Teaching Learning Unit

The methodology for planning a unit
Step One
: Diagnosing needs
Step Two
: Formulation specific
objectives
Step Three : Selecting content
Step Four : Organizing content
Step Five and Six : Selecting and
organizing learning
experience
Step Seven : Evaluating
Step Eight
: Checking for balance and

D. EVALUATION

D. EVALUATION
Ornstein, Allan, C and Hunkins, Francis P(1998; 331)

Assesing The Curriculum Context

The following tips can assist in assesing the context of
curricular action
1. Obtain a reading of the community, noting the key
players
2.Determine the values, goal, and belief that drive the
curriculum
3.Determine the history of past curricular activities
4.Get so a indication of the physical facilities available
and necessary for enactment of the curriculum
5.Judge, the pressure for actions boths for and againts,
generated from within and without the community and
school district
6.Determine the budget needed and the budget
allocated
7.Determine what performance outcomes are important
for the school and community
8.Get a fix on the perceptions, expections, and

Ornstein, Allan, C and Hunkins, Francis P(1998; 337-338)

Phase of Evaluation
1.Focusing on the curricular
phenomen to be evaluated
2.Collecting the information
3.Organizing the infromation
4.Anlyzing the information
5.Reporting the information
6.Recycling the information

Zeis, Robert, S, (1976;373-374)

Standard for Product Evalution

1. The obsolute maximum standard: An obsolute
standard is an arbritrarily set level of achievement
againts which all student are evaluated
2. The obsolute minimum standard: The minimum level
of the obsolute standard usually in set at a point that
ensures succes for virtually all student in the program
- Student who do not achieve mastery of curriculum
objectives at the minimum, level are retaught until
the standard is met
- A curriculum is not judged to be effective unless all
students achieve
all the objectives that have been prescribed for them
3. The realtive standard: The relative standard is most
familiar in connection with scaling grades on the
normal curve This standard of product evaluation
judge each student againts the relative performance of
the group
4. The multiple standard: the multiple standard, consists

Zeis, Robert, S, (1976;378-37)

Comprehensive curriculum evaluation is an enormbusly

complex undertaking that defies attempts to codify the
process either in terms of sequence or component
The reason for this distressing state of affairs is that
comprehensive curriculum evaluation involves not only
the assessment of a written document (the inert
curriculum or curriculum plan) but more important of the
implemented curriculum as a functional corpus of
phenomena involving the interaction of students,
teachers, materials, and environment.
curriculum evaluation it a compnent of the total
curriculum, its design and procedures will be significantly
affected (as is the total curriculum design by such
foundational factors as philosophy, cultural analysis,
conceptions of the nature of men, and other values.

Zeis, Robert, S, (1976;379-380)

Goals and Role Evaluation

The principal goal of evaluation is the
determination and how well a curriculum
performs when measured againts certain
criteria or when compared with another
curriculum. Arriving of this at this overall
determination, of course, implies a
number of more specific sub goals. But
the ultimate purpose of evaluation is
essentially the same, whether we are
trying to evaluate coffee machine or
teaching machine, plans for a house or
plans for a curriculum (Sriven,1967;40)

The roles of evaluation as it operates in

a particular sociological or curriculum
context, however, can ( and probably
should ) very enormously. Depending
upon how the evaluation is designed
and execated, it can perform
differentially (play a variety of roles) in
the curriculum development process, in
the execution and implementation of
curriculum, or even in the practical
economic aren. Where many important
curriculum decisions are ultimately
mode. The particular role played by
evaluation, of course, will have important
effects an the curricular and product

Taba, Hilda, (1962;328)

Model for Comprehensive Evaluation Program

1. Deciding what kinds of evaluation

data are used:
A. Objective and Evidence pertaining
to them
B. Factors Affecting Learning
C. Teaching Learning Operations
D. Teaching Methods
2. Selecting or constructing the needed
instrument
and procedures
3. Analyzing and interpreting data to
develop hypotheses

Taba, Hilda, (1962;329)

.analyzing and interpreting data in develop hypothesis regarding
needed change, Broad pattern of relationship to be studied are follow.

Objectives

Evidence of factors
affecting learning

Evidence on teachingLearning operation

Evidence on pupil behavior

Pertaining to objectives or
purpose Of sechool

McNeil, John, D, (1990;74)

Need Assessment Model

Need assessment is the processes by
which one defines educational needs
and decideas what their priorities are.
In concept of curriculum, a needed is
defined as a condition in which there is
a discrapapancy between an acceptable
state of learner behavior or attitude and
an observed leaner state

McNeil, John, D, (1990;74-76)

Steps in Needs Assessment

1. Formulating a set of tentative
goals statement
2. Assigning priority to goal areas
3. Determining the acceptability of
learner performance in each of the
preferred goal areas
4. Translating high priority goals into
plans

McNeil, John, D, (1990;74-76)

Formative evaluation; is undertaken to

improve an existing program. Hence,
evaluation must provide frequent detailed
and specufuc information to guide the
program developers
Sumative evaluation is done to assess the
effect of a completed program. It provides
information to use in deciding wether to
continue, discontinue, or dissemi -nate the
program. Sumative evaluation is frequently
undertaken in order to dicide which one of
several competing program or materials is
best.

McNeil, John, D, (1990; 135)

Guidelines for conducting formative evaluation

have been given by Lee J.
Cronbach The following prescriptions are
among the most
1.Seek data regarding changes produced in
pupils by the course.
2.Look for multidimentional outcomes and map
out the effects of the course along these
dimentions separately
3.Identify aspects of the course in which
revisions are desirable
4.Collect evidence midway in curriculum
development, while the course is still fluid
5.Try to find put how the course produces its

6. During trial stages, use the teachers

infromal reports of observed pupil
behavior in aspects of the course
7. Make more systematic observations
only other the more obvious bugs in
the early stages have bessn dealt with
8. Make a process study of event taking
place in the classroom and use
proficiency and attitude measures to
reveal changes in pupils
9. Observe several outcomes ranging for
beyond the content of the curriculum
itself--- attitudes, general

McNeil, John, D, (1990;135-138)

Donald Horst and Collegues of the

RMC Research Corporate have
indentified twelve hazards in
conducting
evaluation
1.The use of grade-equivalent scores
2.The use of gainscores
3.The use of horm-group comparisons
4.The use of inappropriate test levels
5.The lack of pre and posttest scores

6. The use of noncomparable treatment

and comparison groups
7. Using pretest scores to select program
participants
8. Assembling a matche decomparicon
group
9. Carelles administrational tests
10. The assumption that an achievement
gain is due to
the treatment alone
11. The use of noncomparable pretest and
posttest
12. The use of inappropriate formulas to

McNeil, John, D, (1990;147)

Norm Referenced Tests and Criterion

Referenced Tests
Standardized achievement teast are
norm referenced. That is, they are
disigned to compere the performances
of individuals to the performane of a
normative group
Criterion standardized test are meant
to ascertain a learners status with
respect to a learning task Criterion
referenced tests are also useful in