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2.

5 Investigating Ecosystems
( Biotic Component)

2.5 Learning Objectives


Use simple published keys for the identification of

the organism
Construct simple dichotomous keys with teachers
support
Acknowledge the importance of construction of keys

Differentiate and identify


the organisms by
identifying their features

Classification

What is classification?
Science of grouping organisms based on their

physical characteristics.

What characteristics do we use?


Structures (morphology)
Functions (physiology)
Biochemistry
Genetics

Why do we classify?
What am I?
Firefly
Lightning bug
Glow Fly
Blinkie
Golden Sparkler
Moon bug
Glhwrmchen
Lucirnaga
Luciole
Jugnu
We all have different names for the same organismthis

is a problem for communication.

Why do we classify?
Identify organisms
Compare organisms
Identify relationships among organisms
Communicate with others (universal language)
Identify evolutionary relationships

From Aristotle to Linneaus


Aristotle (Greek philosopher)

(384-322 B.C)
First System of Classification

1. Plants
Based on stem type
2. Animals
Land, air or water

From Aristotle to Linneaus


Carolus Linneaus (Sweedish botanist)

(1707-1778)
Came up with modern classification system
Used binomial nomenclature (2 word naming system)
This two word name is called a scientific name
Composed of the genus name followed by the species name

Scientific Names
Either written in italics or underlined
Genus is always capitalized and species is always

lowercase
Based on Latin
Examples:

Cat: Felix domesticus


Mosquito: Colex pipens
Human: Homo sapien

Funny Scientific Names


Agra vation (a beetle)
Colon rectum (another beetle)
Ba humbugi (a snail)
Aha ha ( a wasp)
Lalapa lusa (a wasp)
Leonardo davinci (a moth)
Abra cadabra (a clam)
Gelae baen, Gelae belae, Gelae donut, Gelae fish, and

Gelae rol (all types of fungus beetles)


Villa manillae, Pieza kake and Reissa roni (bee flies)

Dichotomous Keys
A series of yes/no questions about an organisms

structure
Used to identify new and unknown organisms

Step 1: Identify the organism


Use dichotomous keys,
field guides,
a museum collection, or
consult an expert

Example of Dichotomous Key

1a. Hair Present..Class Mammalia


1b. Hair AbsentGo to statement 2

Example of Dichotomous Key

2a. Feathers present..Class Aves


2b. Feathers absent.Go to statement 3
3a. Jaw Present..Go to statement 4
3b. Jaw AbsentClass Agnatha

Example of Dichotomous Key

4a. Paired fins presentGo to 5


4b. Paired fins absent.Go to 6

Example of Dichotomous Key

6a. Skin scales presentClass Reptilia


6b. Skin scales absent.Class Ampibia

When constructing identification keys:


Generic terms such as big or small are not useful.
Comparative, quantitative descriptors and simple

identification of the presence or absence of external


features are most useful in keys

Amoeba, shark, beetle, eagle, horse, rat, pine tree, sycamore tree, butter cup,
car, spoon, pebble

Construct a dichotomous key for any 1 of the


following
Level 1:
Spider, chair, car, elephant, sparrow, turtle, amoeba,

bacteria, earthworm, duck

Level 2:
Fern, mushroom, butterfly, snail, lizard, rose

Lion, parrot, clown fish, earthworm

http://www.earthlife.net/insects/orders-key.html#key
Sample key for insect ID

Learning Objective
Describe and evaluate the methods for estimating

abundance of non-motile organisms using quadrat


for making actual counts,
Measuring population density, percentage cover and
percentage frequency
Describe and evaluate methods for estimating the biomass

of trophic levels in a community.

How do we measure abundance of biotic


components
Once the abiotic conditions within an environmental

gradient have been measured, we can begin to ask


questions about the distribution of organisms within
the study area
What is abundance?
How to sample plant and animals?
Will the plants and animals have same method of
measuring abundance

MONITORING BIOTIC (LIVING) FACTORS


Once the abiotic conditions within an environmental

gradient have been measured, we can begin to ask


questions about the distribution of organisms within
the study area

Which species are present Identification of species


The size of a particular population of organisms : Abundance
/ Frequency; Lincoln Index
The diversity of a particular area: Diversity Index
The productivity in a particular area

COLLECTING DATA - Where?


When collecting environmental data, it is almost

impossible to collect every possible data point


We use sampling methods to make estimations
These methods enable us to get a random sample
from an entire ecosystem and then use extrapolation
to make estimates and predictions
In order to avoid bias it is important that these
methods are truly random.
Two methods used in ecology to determine where to
collect a sample are quadrats and transects.

Describe and evaluate methods for estimating


abundance of organisms.
Quadrat Method followed by abundance
Transect method
Trapping methods followed by Lincoln Index

Assumptions Made When Sampling


The sample is representative of the whole system
It is necessary to take enough samples so that an

accurate representation is obtained


It is important to avoid bias when sampling

WS on quadrat
randome sampling

Estimating Populations of Organisms


We estimate populations because it would take way too

long to count every living thing in a given ecosystem.


We can estimate populations of plants or animals
Random Sampling: All organisms must have an
equal chance of being captured.
The design of sampling strategies needs to be
appropriate for its purpose and provide a valid
representation of the system being investigated.
Suitable sampling techniques include random or
systematic in a uniform environment, or transects
over an environmental gradient.

Systematic sampling
A sampling method in which sample selection begins

at a random starting point but subsequently selects


additional sampling units at equal intervals along a
stated gradient or numbered list; for example,
sampling a river channel's width and depth at 1kilometer intervals along its full length.

Common Sampling Methods


Abundance of Non-motile Organisms

Transects and Quadrants

Abundance of Motile Organism

Actual Count (very difficult if large system)


Lincoln Index

Capture Mark - Recapture

Species Diversity

Simpson Diversity Index

For comparing 2 habitats or the change in one habitat over time

Quadrat Sampling

Sampling by quadrats method


Abundance: The number of individuals of a species in a

particular area. Since plants grow out and spread, percentage


cover is taken. It also includes density
Percentage Cover: It is the percent of the area within the
quadrat covered by one particular species. It is an estimate. It
is worked out for each species present. It can be grade on a
scale 0 -5 or ACFOR Scale (Abundant, Common, Frequent, Occasional, Rare).
Dividing the quadrat into a 1010 grid helps to estimate
percentage cover
Density: Mean number of plants per /m2
Frequency: The percentage of the total quadrats number
that the species was present in.
Species Richness - the number of species occurring in a
quadrat or study area.

Estimating (Abundance)Populations of Plants


Abundance: The number of individuals of a species in a

particular area. Since plants grow out and spread,


percentage cover is taken. It also includes density
Quadrat Estimation
Population Density- The
number of plants within the
given area of the quadrat (m2)

Percentage CoverageHow much of the area of a


quadrat is covered by plants?

Frequency- How often does a plant occur in each quadrat?


Acacia senegalensis was present in 47 of 92 quadrats, for a
frequency of 51%

Abundance (number of species)


Percentage Cover (%) ACFOR Scale

Score

> 50

Abundant

25 50

Common

12 - 25

Frequent

6-12

Occasional

<6

Rare

Absent
Estimated Pop size= total no. of individuals counted* total area
No. quadrats X area of each quadrat
Population density= no. of individuals / given size of quadrat area (m2)
Frequency: Percentage of No. of quadrats the species is present
Species richness: the different types (number)of species occurring in a quadrat or
study area

Square Quadrat Method: Population size


N = (Mean # per quadrat) (total area)

Area of each quadrat


This estimates the population size in an area
Ex. If you count an average of 10 live oak trees per
square hectare in a given area, and there are 100
square hectares in your area, then
N = (10 X 100 hectare2) / 1 hectare2 = 1000 trees
in the 100 hectare2

In addition to population size we can measure


Density = # of individuals per unit area

Good measure of overall numbers


Frequency = the proportion of quadrats sampled that
contain your species
Assessment of patchiness of distribution
% Cover = space within the quadrat occupied by each
species
Distinguishes the larger and smaller species

Grid Quadrate
Measures percent frequency the % of

quadrats in which the species is found


OR
Measures percent coverage the % of
area within a quadrat covered by a
single species

NOTE: When you are looking at one species


at a time

If not using a 10 x 10, you must turn

into a percentage (squares


covered/total # of squares)

Percent Frequency

http://www.slideshare.net/nirmalajosephine1/biology-form-4-chapter-8dynamic-ecosystem-part-3-42839437

Percent Coverage
1m

Count full squares


Now combine pieces to

make full squares


Calculate percentage
coverage

Percent Coverage
18

14 22

24 24 1 2 14
15 3 4 15
17 21 23

1m

Find the percent coverage

19 20 12
13 13 17 18
5 6 12
16 7 8 9 10 11 22
16 19 21 23 20 12

Abundance (number of species)


Percentage Cover (%) ACFOR Scale

Score

> 50

Abundant

25 50

Common

12 - 25

Frequent

6-12

Occasional

<6

Rare

Absent

Calculate Population Density


What is the population density of species x ?
What is the population density of species Y?
Quadrat 1= 0.5m2

What is the population density of


species Z?

Calculate Percentage Coverage


What is the percentage of plant
coverage in this quadrat?
Quadrat 1= 0.5m2

X
W

X
X

X
X

W
X

X
W

Percentage Frequency
Quadrat 1

What is the frequency


of species X?
What about species V?

Quadrat 2

Quadrat 3

X
W

X
X

X
X

W
W

W
X

How choose quadrat size?


Think about the size of the organism.
Think about the area of the system.
The smaller the quadrat the more accurate, however

the smaller the sample size


Larger quadrats increase inaccuracy but allow for
broader sample of an area

Measuring Biomass
Get a sample of the organisms, oven dry them at 85C

completely in a dehydrating oven (to remove all


water!), find the mass and extrapolate :
If you collect 10 plants, dry them out and find their
average dry biomass to be 20g, what would the
biomass of a population of 2500 plants be?
50,000g
Remember biomass can be used to create pyramids
of biomass when looking at energy transfers and is
needed for many productivity calculations!

Learning Objectives
Describe and evaluate the methods for estimating

abundance of non-motile organisms using transect


method along the environmental gradient

Transects

Transects
A TRANSECT - A line, strip or profile of vegetation

which has been selected for study. measure any of


these abiotic and/or biotic components of an
ecosystem along an environmental gradient

Transect
In order to complete a transect, a piece of string or

measuring tape is laid out along the selected


gradient.

Line Transects
A measured line is randomly placed across the area

in the direction of an environmental gradient


All species touching the line are recorded along the
whole length of the line or at specific points along the
line
Measures presence or absence of species

Belt Transects
Transect line is laid out and a quadrant is placed at

each survey interval


Samples are identified and abundance is estimated

Slow moving animals (limpets, barnacles, snails) are collected,


identified then released
For plants an percent coverage is estimated

Belt Transects
Data collection should be completed by one

individual as estimates can vary person to person

Transect
These can either be sampled continuously or as an

interrupted transect where samples are taken at


regular, fixed distances along the line.

Transect
To measure changes in space i.e. zonation, this

technique should be completed within a short space


of time to avoid any daily cycles
For studies of long term change i.e. succession, the
transect should be repeated at the same time of day
and at regular intervals over a suitable time period
depending on what is being studied or assessed.

Kite Diagrams
Used to illustrate changes in species over space or

time along an environmental gradient.


The width of each kite represents the percentage
cover or abundance of that species.

Task Analysis:
Create a Pro/Con table for the sampling techniques

presented - quadrat and transect method.


For each sampling technique, write a short description
along the lines of:
The quadrat sampling technique is done by and is
best suited for
Explain why one sampling technique alone is usually
not sufficient for determining the true abundance and
distribution of a species. Use at least one example from
the exercise to support your explanation.

Describe and evaluate methods for estimating the


biomass of trophic levels in a community.
Biomass: the mass of organic material in organisms or

ecosystems, usually per unit area.


Biomass is calculated to indicate the total energy within in a living
being or trophic level. The greater the mass of the living
material the greater the amount of energy present.
Biomass is taken as the mass of an organism minus water
content, like dry weight biomass. Water is not included in
biomass measurements because the amount varies from organisms
to organism, it does not contain energy and is not organic.
To obtain the samples, the biological material is dried to
constant weight. It is then weighed. The specimens are
then heated in a oven which is not hot enough to burn the
tissue and left for a certain amount of time.
Biomass is usually measured per unit area so that
comparisons can be made between the trophic levels
present.

Must watch Reference videos


https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x_2ZsgSJcGg&f

eature=plcp
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3SCsDVQa3A0

Learning Objective
Define diversity
Calculate Simpsons Diversity Index
Apply Simpsons Diversity Index using

mathematical simulation and


Outline its significance

Simpson Index

Species Diversity
The two main factors taken into account when measuring species

diversity
1. Sp Richness
A measure of the number of different species present in a particular
area.
The more species present in a sample, the 'richer' the sample.
Takes no account of the number of individuals of each species present.
It gives as much weight to those species which have very few
individuals as to those which have many individuals.
The two main factors taken into account when measuring species
diversity
2. Relative Abundance
The relative number of individuals of each species present
http://www.countrysideinfo.co.uk/simpsons.htm

How Can We Know Diversity?


Use the Simpsons diversity index below

D = ____________N (N-1)_______________
n1(n11) + n2(n2 1) + n3(n3 1) +nk(nk 1)
D = Diversity
N = Total number of organisms of all species
n = number of individuals of a particular species
***The higher the D value the more diverse the sample
is!!!!!

Example Data Calculations

Abundance of Organism
Ecosystem A

Ecosystem B

species 1

species 2

species 3

26

12

species 4

species 5

Diversity

3.27

How can changes in these populations be


measured?
Necessary because populations may change over

time through processes like succession


But also because human activities may impact a
population and we want to know how

Impacts include toxins from mining, landfills,


eutrophication, effluent, oil spills, overexploitation and change
of land use (for example, deforestation, development or use for
tourism activities).

Analyzing Simpsons Index


Used to compare 2 different ecosystems or to monitor an

ecosystem change over time. It is relative comparison and not


absolute
D values have no units and are used as comparison to each other
High D Value Indicates:

Stable and ancient site


More diversity
Healthy habitat

Low D Value Indicates:

Dominance by one species


Environmental stress

Pollution, colonization, agriculture


Low D in the Arctic tundra, however, may represent stable and ancient sites.

Gems packet and their diversity

Learning Objectives
Compare various trapping methods for estimating

abundance of organisms.
Measuring abundance by Lincoln Index
Defend why the measurement of the biotic factors is
often subjective and may not be as precise and
reliable as the abiotic factor measurement

Measuring abundance of Mobile Organisms


If the organism is mobile we use a method called the

capture-mark-recapture method
We then use this data to calculate the Lincoln Index

How to Capture Motile Organisms


REMEMBER: IB Animal Experimentation Policy
Pitfall Traps
Small Mammal Traps
Tullgren Funnels (invertebrates)
Kick Net

Pitfall Trap Method


Insects that crawl about on the

ground can be captured in a


pitfall trap.
The simplest trap can be
constructed easily by placing a
can or plastic container in the
ground.
Add enough killing agent (such
as alcohol) to cover the bottom
of the container.
To keep rainwater out of these
traps, a board can be propped
up over the opening.

Tullgren Funnel
The Tullgren Funnel is an apparatus

which helps to remove living


organisms from leaf litter. Leaf litter is
placed in a filter funnel which is
covered with black paper.
The funnel is then held over a bottle
containing a mixture of alcohol and
water. There is a piece of gauze
present to prevent soil entering the
liquid.
Once the leaf litter has been placed in
the funnel, the apparatus is put under
a strong light for at least two weeks.
The soil dries out slowly and this
encourages the living organisms to
move downwards.

Light Trap
1. A light trap is a device used at night in
the rice field to collect and control
insects such as leafhoppers, plant
hoppers and stem borers.
2. Light traps provide a good method for
collecting large numbers of night-flying
insects or for collecting insects from
several locations at once. They are also
a valuable tool for individuals who
cannot be out at night to collect.
3. The simplest light trap consists of a UV
light (often called a black light) and a
collecting pan with alcohol covering the
bottom.
4. The pan is placed below the light, and
insects flying toward the light eventually
drop into the alcohol.

Lincoln Index

Estimating Populations of Animals

Lincoln Index

Example
50 snowshoe hares are captured in box traps,

marked with ear tags and released. Two weeks later,


100 hares are captured and checked for ear tags. If
10 hares in the second catch are already marked
(10%), provide an estimate of N

**Realize for accuracy that you would recapture

multiple times and take an average**

Lincoln Index Assumptions


1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

The marked animals are not affected (neither in behavior


nor life expectancy).
The marked animals are completely mixed in the
population.
The probability of capturing a marked animal is the same
as that of capturing any member of the population.
Sampling time intervals must be small in relation to the
total time of experiment of organisms life span.
The population is closed (no immigration and
emigration)
No births or deaths in the period between sampling.

Some Possible Sources of Error


Emigration & Immigration
Natural disaster or disturbance between captures
Trap happy or trap shy individuals
Organisms did not have enough time to disperse

back into ecosystem


Animals lost marks between recapture

Review points
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Dispersion patterns
Carrying capacity and limiting factors
r and K selection
Natural population cycles
Human effects

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