GIS Data: Types and Structures

Geographic Data:
Concepts, File Formats, Topology

Anatomy of Spatial File Formats

shapefile, geodatabase, coverage

Coordinate Systems and Projections

Spring 2008

Geographic Data: Classic Approach

Two components of geographic data
Spatial Data: representations of geographic features
associated with real-world locations
Stored in files and managed by the GIS software

Attribute Data: descriptive information

stored in tables and managed by an RDBMS (relational database
managemnt system)
(originally ESRIs proprietray Info system, but now any standard
commercial system such as Access, Oracle, SQL Server )

Two formats for geographic data

Raster data
Rectangular array of cells or pixel

Vector data: three feature types

points/nodes
(single x,y locations)
lines/arcs (linear string of x,y locations)
areas/polygons
(closed string of x,y locations)

Geographic Data: Another (object-oriented) View

Object View
The real world is a series of entities located in space (houses, poles, soil types)
Some locations have values, others are null

An object is a digital representation of an entity, with three types

Point objects
Line objects
Area objects

The same entity can be represented at different scales by different object types: the
multi-representation problem
Behavior can be associated with objects thus they can change over time

Field View
Real world properties vary continuously over space;
every place has a value
represent as raster data or as vector data in a TIN (triangulated irregular network

Object versus Field View

Not as distinct as first appears
If the value is a categorical or integer variable, then places with the same value
(e.g. soil type) can be grouped--which give us area objects!
The world is how we decide to look at it!
From OSullivan and Unwin

File Formats for Vector Spatial Data

Coverage: vector data format introduced with ArcInfo in 1981
multiple physical files (12 or so) in a folder
proprietary: no published specs & ArcInfo required for changes
Can be exported to a single E00 (E-zero-zero) file for transfer

Shape file: vector data format introduced with ArcView in 1993

comprises several (at least 3) physical disk files (with extension of
.shp, .shx, .dbf), all of which must be present
openly published specs so other vendors can create shape files
Geodatabase: new format introduced with ArcGIS 8.0 in 2000
Proprietary, next generation spatial data model
Can be saved in several different physical formats (as of 9.2)
File based, MS Access based, commercial DBMS based
Versions available which support multi-user editing and replication

Shapefiles are the simplest and most commonly used format. Used them in
GIS Fund. Will use Geodatabases in Applied GIS (and some coverages).

Database
Environments
Old Model:
Geo-relational Database

the old classic environment

coverages in proprietary INFO
database
Raster data (in GRIDS) and 3-D
data (in TINS) kept in separate,
proprietary files
shapefiles use openly published
dbIV database (readable by
Excel)
Based on points, lines, polygon
model
Attribute data kept in separate
databases and must be combined
with coverages or shapefiles for
spatial applications

GIS
User

SDE

db

New Model: Geodatabase

Replacement for coverages, with support for:
Simple features: points, lines polygons
Complex features: real world entities modeled as
objects with properties, behavior, rules, & relationships
Three Formats (as of 9.2):
MS Access-based Personal Geodatabase (8.0>)
Single-user editing, multiple read-only users
Stored as one .mdb (Access) file
Max 2GB total & 250,000 features per layer
(effective max is 250-500MB)

File-based Geodatabase (9.2>)

Single-user editor, many read-only users
Faster and more efficient than personal gdb.
Unix and Microsoft supported
Max 1 TB (256 TB for raster)
SDE-based Geodatabase
Personal (4), Workgroup (10) and Enterprise (??)
versions
Multi-user simultaneous editing via versioning and long
transactions
uses standard db: ORACLE, SQL Server, etc
Attribute and spatial data in same database

GIS
GIS Data
Data Models
Models

File-based
File-basedand
andDatabased
Databased

Geodatabase
Features

Workspace
Coverages

Images
Tins

Shapes

Grids
Tables

Grids

Images

Relationships
Rules

Tables

One Repository
Source: ESRI, Inc.

Concept of Topology
Topology distinguishes GIS data models from non-topological
data models supported by many CAD, mapping and graphics
systems
Topology refers to knowledge about relative spatial
positioning of features.
knowledge about how features are connected and which features are
adjacent to each other.

Can be viewed as a mathematical procedure that determines

spatial relationships and properties, including:
The three Cs
Connectivity (US 75 connects to IH 45)
Congruency--same location (Red River & TX/OK border)
Contiguity--adjacency or next door (TX & OK)

Lengths of arcs and the areas of polygons

7

Topology Rules for Coverages:

the classic view of topology
Each arc has a beginning node and an ending node this determines directionality. Directionality is
determined during digitizing.
Actual direction is important only if your application requires
directional modeling.

Arcs connect to other arcs at nodes

Nodes must be present wherever arcs join or cross

Connected arcs form polygon boundaries

arc coordinates are stored only once because two adjacent
polygons share the common arc between them.

Arcs have polygons on their left and right sides

The next three slides illustrate this
8

Topology Concept I: Arc-node topology

Nodes are the end-points of arcs. Arc-node topology
keeps track of which arcs are connected to other arcs
through shared nodes X It defines length, direction,
and connectivity for arcs.

The from-node is an arcs starting point; the to-node is

its ending point.
They are determined as you digitize your data.
You can see the from-node and to-node whenever you list
attribute records for a coverage containing lines.
Arcs connect if they share a node.

Topology Concept II: Polygon-arc topology

Polygon-arc topology expresses the relationship
between the arc features and the polygon features for
which the arcs create boundaries. It defines area and
adjacency. Arcs or a set of arcs that form a closed
figure define the area of a polygon. Two polygons are
adjacent if they share an arc. Polygons are stored as a
list of arcs to avoid redundancy.

10

Topology Concept III Left-right topology

Left-right topology refers to contiguity -- how
polygons are associated with their neighboring
polygons. Each arc has a list of which polygons are on
the right side and which are on the left side.
Commands in Arc/INFO use this information to
determine from one polygon what the adjacent
polygons are:
1
5
4

2
3

6
7
11

Topology: Coverages v. Geodatabase v. Shapefiles

Coverages (classic view of topology)
Topology is a property of the data itself
Applying Topology potentially changes the data file (coverage) via Clean (location
of points) and Build (table structure) commands
A single coverage may have multiple geographic data types (points and lines,
polygons and lines, but not points and polygons)

Geodatabase (new view introduced with ArcGIS 8.3)

Topology is a set of rules selectively applied by the user ( 28 or so currently defined)

Does not alter the data file (feature class), unless user chooses to fix violations
Topology saved as a relationship class within a geodatabase feature dataset
A feature class contains only one geographic data type (point or line or polygon),
but all can be related together by a topology relationship class providing they are in
the same feature dataset

Shapefiles
share some similarities with coverages but are not fully topological
May need to covert to coverages for some analyses.

Discuss topology for coverages later today and for geodatabases later in the course.

12

Anatomy of Spatial File Formats

Shapefile
Geodatabase
Coverage
The following two diagrams show how geographic files appear in:
ArcCatalog
Windows Explorer
We will refer back to these as we discuss each of these file formats.
13

Spatial File Formatsexample

ArcCatalog View
Personal Geodatabase
In a gdb, feature
class can have
Feature data set
only one feature
Feature class (feature type = polygon)
type.
Feature class (feature type = arc)
Coverage (= feature class)
A coverage can
Feature type (arc)
have multiple
feature typesFeature type (point)
now viewed as a
Feature type (polygon)
shortcoming.
Feature type (point)
Coverage (= feature class)
Feature type (arc)
Tracts feature class table
Feature type (point)
(attributes in columns)
Locator (table)
Raster
Shapefile
Shapefile
Features
(rows)

Feature ID
(key field)

Feature
type

Secondary or
Foreign key

Spatial File Formats: NT Explorer View

Info master folder for AVCAT workspace
Tracts coverage
Trans coverage
Locator (table)
Personal Geodatabase

Raster

Tracts
shapefile

Trans
shapefile

15

Shapefiles
openly published structure for spatial data (Coverages &
Geodatabases are proprietary)
Partially an attempt (successfully!) by ESRI to make their format the
industry standard

much simpler than coverages: rather than multiple

folders and files, three main files with same name (road)
but different extensions, e.g.
road.shp

road.shx

road.dbf

Attribute (feature) data stored in dBase (.dbf) file

Can be edited in Excel (or other) but do not change the number of rows
If you add columns, may need to change refers to definition via
Insert/Name/Define

Files can be dragged, dropped, cut and pasted into other

folders -- providing the complete file set is moved.
16

Geodatabase (gdb) File Structure

17

Geodatabase (gdb)
Feature (vector) datasets
Spatial Reference
Object classes and subtypes
Feature Classes and subtypes
Relationship classes
Network Topology
Planar topology
Domains
Validation Rules
Raster Datasets
rasters
TIN (3-D) datasets
nodes, edges, faces
Locators
addresses x,y locations
Zip codes place names
route locations

Anatomy of a Geodatabase
Geodatabases may contain: feature datasets,
raster datasets, TIN datasets, locators
Feature datasets contain vector data
All data in a single feature dataset share a
common spatial reference system
Similar Objects (e.g. Jane Blow, land owner) are
instances of object classes (e.g. land owners)
and have no spatial form.
Features and feature classes are spatial objects
(e.g. land parcels) which are similar and have
same spatial form (e.g. polygon)
Object (or feature) classes are the tables, and
objects (or features) are the rows of the table
Attributes are in the columns of the table
Subtypes are an alternative to multiple object (or
feature) classes (e.g. concrete, asphalt,
gravel road subtypes): think of subtype as
the most significant classification variable
(attribute) in the class table
Domains define permitted data values.
Topology is saved as a relationship between the
feature classes in the feature dataset.

Organizing Information: Classes

Object Classes
a set of non-spatial entities with similar characteristics e.g.
owners of property
Feature Classes
a set of spatial entities with similar characteristics e.g. property
parcels
Classes are represented in Tables which are physically stored in the
computer system in one or more files
Object or Feature class=Table
name
jane
joan
jim
jean

address
201 N. Hi
207 N Main
20 Elm
40 Oak

Attribute = column

dob
45
55
75
80

ssn
274-54-8910
234-81-7890
890-75-9876
x04-23-7890

Object or feature = row

Key Field = attribute which uniquely identifies each feature or object

19

Feature classes (FC), feature datasets (fds) and subtypes

feature datasets (fds) are spatial folders which contain feature classes (spatial data sets, such as land
parcel file or street file)
All feature classes in a fds must have the same spatial reference system, but may have different topology (can have
points and lines and polygons in same fds)
Organize by thematic similarity e.g transportation
If you wish to create topology, must be in same fds
If they share geometry (street forms political boundary), should be in same fds
If you create a geometric network (e.g. to model water flow) must be in same fds
Security (read/write permissions, etc..) applied at the fds not the fc level!!!!

feature classes are spatial data sets containing geographic features (e.g. land parcels): a table with spatial
data
Data in FC must have same topology type (all points, all lines, all polygons)
Water feature class with lakes (polygon) and streams (line) not permitted

Minimizing the number of feature classes improves performance

Use different feature classes only when attributes are significantly different
Use roads feature class rather than freeway, arterial, streets feature classes
Use subtype to differentiate freeway, arterials, streets (all have similar attributes)

Subtypes are subclasses within a feature class that allow you to further distinguish objects without
creating new feature classes
based on a single columns values (must be integer or long integer)
Same subtype has similar attribute values and behaviors
Use where attributes are the same across all subtypes

Attribute Data Types: Geodatabase

For every attribute field, must select a data type
Each RDBMS stores data slightly differently
ESRI generic data types will translate into closest RDBMS equivalent
Values given below may differ with RDBMS used
ESRI Generic Data Types
String: text field. Be sure its length (number of characters), absolute or what you specify, is sufficient to record
longest data value.
Short Integer: (or integer) whole numbers (no decimal point) generally
+/-32,767 (2 bytes). OK for size of family, not OK for city size
Long Integer: (or long) only supports integers to +/- 2,147,483,647 (4 bytes)
Float: (or single) single precision floating point; again, be careful-- supports decimal point but perhaps only 6
digits long with decimal moveable 34 places (E34) (4 bytes)
Double: double precision floating point; the safest-- supports 12-15 digits with decimal moveable up to 308 places
(E308) (8 bytes)
Blob: binary long decimal for special programming applications
Note terminology:
Precision: the total number of digits (before plus after decimal)
Scale: number of digits after decimal

Domains and Defaults

Why Use Them?
Data Integrity: prevents entry of invalid (obviously wrong) data values
Data Efficiency: choose from a set of valid values rather than type in each time
Domains define a set of legal values for a fields attributes
Range domain: specifies a valid range of values for numerical attributes
A water pipe must be between 1 and 100 inches wide

Coded value domain: specifies a valid set of values for an attributes. Can apply
to any type of attributes
Parcels can only have RES or VAC land use values

Domains are defined as a geodatabase property & then applied as appropriate

Multiple objects in the same database may use the same domain
May be applied to an entire field (attribute), or separately by subtype

Defaults are values automatically assigned when a feature is created

Of course, may be changed during data entry/edit process
Again, may be applied to an entire field (attribute), or separately by subtype

Provide a way by which business rules can be incorporated.

Lesson: Geodatabases contain more than just data!

22

Relationships and Relationship

Classes
Contain associations between feature classes, or
between individual features within a feature class
A join between feature classes may be stored in the gdb as
a relationship e.g. join between parcel and owners
files
Topology may be stored in a relationship class
e.g. information on which Red River segments also
form Texas/Oklahoma state line
Geometric networks may be stored in a relationship class,
e.g. water lines associated with water valves
Lesson: Geodatabases contain more than just data!
23

Spatial Reference for a Geodatabase

All feature classes within a feature dataset must have the same spatial reference.
Coordinate System
Datum
Geographic (lat/long) or projected?
Projection parameters: central meridian, standard parallels, coordinate system origin (false easting
and northing)
Measurement (map) units: dd (for lat/long), feet, meters, etc. (for proj.)

Spatial domain
The allowable coordinate range for the geographic coordinates
X/Y Domain: MinX, MaxX, MinY, MaxY (horizontal extent)
Z Domain: Min, Max (vertical extent)
M Domain: Min, Max (other parameter, e.g. distance from river mouth ) (can differ within feature data set)

Once created, the spatial domain for feature dataset/class cannot be changed.
Data outside extent will require a new feature dataset or standalone feature class.

Precision
Number of system storage units (SU) per one map measurement unit (MU)
If precision is 1 and mu= 1 meter ( 1 SU per MU), cannot record values less than 1 meter
If precision is 100 and mu= 1 meter (100 SUs per MU), can record values
to 1/100 = .01 = 1 cm

Coverage File Structure

25

The Coverage
Digital version of a single map sheet layer and generally contains one type of
map feature such as streets, parcels, soils,
Can contain both the coordinate/spatial data and the descriptive data for features
in a given geographic area.
Additional attribute data about features (entities) can be stored in data base tables
using proprietary INFO relational data base system
Allowed user to customize, organize and store substantial amounts of attribute data
and relate to spatial data

Spatial data stored in indexed binary files for performance

Full topological relationship information maintained: e.g. nodes that delimit a
line
Permits sophisticated spatial analysis

Coverage will be stored as a directory (folder) within a workspace. An identifier

(feature ID), a unique number for each feature in the coverage, ensures strict
correspondence between spatial and attribute data and between the various data
types (e.g. point feature ID also identifies the from or to node for an arc)
Names for coverages are maximum 13 characters in length and cannot include
blanks or special characters (-,#, etc) other than under_score

26

Workspace
Coverages must be stored in workspaces
A workspace is the work area used during an ARC/INFO
session.
Within the computer file system, the workspace is a directory
(folder) containing one or more geographic data sets (e.g.,
coverage, tin, grid), a local INFO database, and other
supporting data.
at a minimum it is a folder containing an INFO subfolder
(subdirectory)
More than one user can read data from the same workspace,
however, it is strongly recommend that only one user access a
workspace for creating or updating data.

27

Role of Features IDs

28

File Structure: Coverage

ArcInfo coverages consist of a series of files in two folders

The INFO folder
And a folder named the same as the coverage (e.g. water, soil)
both are at the same directory level, which is called a workspace.

The INFO folder contains the feature attribute tables and related tables for all coverage in that
workspace.
Unfortunately, file names do not correspond to the names of files we work with!

29

Soil
POLYGON

ARC/INFO Spatial
Database Structure
(coverage)
INFO

ARC

Soil

AAT

TIC

BND

ETC.

PAT

These are the files we work with within ArcInfo:

--PAT: Polygon (or Point) attribute table
--AAT: Arc Attribute Table
--BND: bounding box
--TIC: tie coverage to real world location

Manipulating Coverage File Structure

Ramifications of Coverage File Structure
Do not drag and drop, cut, copy, paste, delete, or rename a coverage
from the NT explorer window. Any of these actions may result in
corruption (and loss) of not only the coverage manipulated, but of the
entire workspace.
Must use ArcCatalog GUI application, or use ArcInfo Workstation
and issue Arc commands (see next slide for full list) within the
relevant workspace to work with coverages:

Exceptions:
Can drag and drop, cut, copy, paste, and delete the entire workspace
Can drag and drop, cut, copy, paste, and delete the interchange file
(e00) created by exporting the coverage

Naming Coverages
Names for coverages are maximum 13 characters in length and cannot
include blanks or special characters (-,#, etc) other than under_score

31

Topology Maintenance for Coverages

BUILD and CLEAN are the essential commands for creating/maintaining
topology and defining/updating feature attribute tables for coverages
You must BUILD topology after creation of a new coverage or after
modifications to the coverage such as in ArcEdit or after changing the
projection.
You must CLEAN a coverage if the build command detects errors.
CLEAN will correct geometric relations (thus changes spatial structure
and/or point locations) using the parameters you specify by
adding nodes at intersections
fixing dangling nodes
(if within dangle length)
Combining nodes (if within fuzzy tolerance)

BUILD constructs topology and defines and updates feature attribute

tables for a coverage. After creating a coverage you will not have
attribute tables unless topology is constructed.

32

Feature Attribute Tables

When Arc/INFO constructs topology for a coverage, topological and
geometric properties are defined and stored in a file called the feature
attribute table.
Depending on the feature type (e.g., point, arc, polygon), the contents of
feature attribute tables differ; however, they all have some characteristics
in common, including
Feature attribute tables are INFO data files
Each feature in a coverage occupies one record or row of data in the feature
attribute table
Attribute data comprise columns (items) placed after the internally stored data
You can have more than one feature attribute table for a coverage, e.g. arcs
and polygons define both streets and blocks.
But you cannot have both points and polygons in the same coverage.

Common feature attribute tables:

Points - Point attribute table - PAT
Arcs - Arc attribute table - AAT
Polygons - Polygon attribute table - PAT

33

Data Stored for Points

Coordinate information is stored in a LAB file. Each point is described
by a single x,y coordinate pair and an internal sequence number.
A point attribute table (PAT) is created when topology is constructed for a
point coverage. The PAT is used to hold the attribute data about points.
There is one record (row) in the PAT for each point. The record is
related to the point by the sequence number.
At a minimum the PAT contains four items
AREA
Holds the area of a polygon. The value is 0 for points
PERIMETER Holds the perimeter of a polygon. The value is 0 for points
<cover># Arc/Info assigned unique internal sequence number of the point
feature in the LAB. Same as RECNO - do not tamper
with these
values (sometimes called pound id)
<cover>-id User assigned unique feature ID for each point (sometimes
called dash id or user id)

You can add items (columns) to the PAT after the <cover>-id item.

34

Data Stored for Arcs

Coordinate information is stored in an ARC file. Each arc is described in a

single record by a series of x,y coordinates, the from-node and to-node (for arcnode topology) and an internal sequence number
An arc attribute table (AAT) is created when topology is constructed for an arc
coverage. There is one record in AAT for each arc in the coverage. The record
is related to the feature (ARC file) by the internal sequence number.
At a minimum the AAT contains seven items
FNODE# Internal sequence number of the from-node
TNODE# Internal sequence number of the to-node
LPOLY# Internal sequence number of the left polygon; set to 0 if the
coverage does not have polygon topology
RPOLY# Internal sequence number of the right polygon; set to 0 if the
coverage does not have polygon topology
LENGTH Length of the arc in coverage units
<cover># Arc/Info assigned unique internal sequence number of the
arc in the ARC file. NEVER modify this value.
<cover>-id User assigned unique feature ID for each arc
You can add items (attributes) to the PAT after the <cover>-id item.

35

Data Stored for Polygons (PAT)

A polygon is defined by the arcs comprising its border and interior

islands, with polygon-arc topology stored in the PAL file, and arcnode/left-right topology stored in the ARC file, and a label point
inside the polygon stored in the LAB file. The label point id identifies
the polygon and is consistent between files.
A polygon attribute table (PAT) is created when topology is
constructed for a polygon coverage. The PAT is used to hold the
attribute data about polygons. There is one record in the PAT for each
polygon. The record is related to the polygon by the label point id.
At a minimum the PAT contains four items (same as point attrib table)
AREA
Holds the area of a polygon, in coverage units.
PERIMETER Holds the perimeter of a polygon. The value is 0 for points
<cover># Arc/Info assigned unique internal sequence number of the
polygon feature in the LAB, ARC and PAL files
<cover>-id User assigned unique feature ID for each point

You can add items (attributes) to the PAT after the <cover>-id item.
The first polygon is always the universal polygon which represents the
coverage boundary.

36

Polygon data stored in PAT

37

Understanding Item Definitions

An item (variable stored in a column) is defined by four
characteristics
name - the name of the item, up to 16 characters in length
e.g. cover-id, landuse, pop97, etc.

type - the data types used to store values

I - integer (one byte per digit)

B - binary integer (requires less storage than I types)
C - character
N - floating point (e.g. decimal) number stored as one byte per digit
F - floating point binary number
D - date (e.g. yyyymmdd)

width - the width of the item in bytes required for storage

I - 1-16 bytes
B - either 2 or 4 bytes
C - 1 to 320 characters
N - 1 to 16 digits
F - 4 for single, 8 for double precision D - always 8 bytes
For F or N also provide the number of decimal places for real numbers

Output width - the width of item values when displayed

38

A Example of Item Definitions

DATA VALUE

TYPE

ABBREV.

WIDTH

Main Street

Character

1 to 320

10/15/1990

Date

23675

Integer

1-16

347.22

Numeric

1-16

1344719822

Binary number

2 or 4

99378164.788

Binary floating
point

4 or 8

Maximum 4 byte binary is 2,147,483,648;

9,999

maximum 4 byte integer is

39

How to Convert Between File Formats:

multiple different ways!
In ArcCatalog:
By importing from one format into another
E.g import shapefile into geodatabase

By exporting from one format into another

E.g. export shapefile to a geodatabase

(Each achieves same thing. gdb must already exist)

In ArcMap:
ArcMap can read and overlay all three data types
Can use data/export to output and (thus potentially convert) to a gdb
feature class or a shapefile (but not a coverage)
Note: will read coverages but cannot export to a coverage

In ArcToolbox:
The greatest number of conversion options are available here.

40

Coordinate Systems

41

Coordinate Systems
All spatial data is in a coordinate system
You must know what it is!

Often loosely, but incorrectly, called a map projection

Coordinate System consists of two main things:
Datum: normally NAD 27 or NAD 83
The same location may have different coordinates just cos of the datum

Projection
The transformation by which 3D lat/long is converted to 2D X/Y Cartesian values
parameters normally required to describe the exact nature of the projection
measurement units: usually feet or meters, also must always be specified

A geographic projection uses lat/long values as X/Y Cartesian coordinates (not

recommended)

Thus, for any a spatial data set, knowing simply the name of the
projection is not sufficient. Must also know:
Datum
Parameter(s)
Measurement units

We often say map projection, when we really mean coordinate system!

Define versus Project: a critical distinction!

Define

Informs the ArcGIS system of the datas actual, current projection.

Is essentially metadata. For shapefiles or coverages, saved in a .prj file
Does not change the actual data.
Define it wrong, and all subsequent analyses or projections of that data
will be wrong!
The existing projection is specified with Define command

Project
Actually projects the data. Think of this as reproject.
The data does change.
The current projection (input) must already be known by the ArcGIS
system,
That is, you have to do a Define first, if somebody has not already done it

The desired projection (output) is specified with Project command.

43

How to Project (and Define) Data:

multiple different ways!
In ArcToolbox
Generally, use tools in ArcToolbox to project data
Tools to DEFINE and PROJECT all data types are available
Coordinate system must be defined before running Project
In ArcCatalog
You can define the projections for shapefiles and coverages, but you cannot generally
reproject the original data without multiple steps.
Providing that it is already defined, data brought into a new or existing geodatabase
feature dataset will automatically be reprojected to the coordinate system of the feature
dataset as it is saved there
It can be exported in this (potentially) new projection, if desired.
In effect, this projects the data.

In ArcMap
Providing that it is already defined (projection system known to ArcGIS), data brought
into a data frame (whose coordinate system is also known) will be reprojected in
memory to the coordinate system of the frame for display.
It can be exported in this (potentially) new projection, if desired.
In effect, this projects the data.

Note double proviso: known coordinate system for data inputted and for frame.

44

Warning!
Failure to correctly deal with datums and
projection is the single major source of
problems in GIS!
Assuming that the software will take care
of it is an invitation for eventual disaster!

45

Appendix

46

ESRI Vector Definitions:

Primitives

label point: a point defined by a

single pair of x,y co-ordinates

arc: line defined by ordered set of

x,y coordinate pairs

point feature (tree, airport)

polygon User-ID

may be straight or curved

vertices: points on an arc, which

are not nodes; used to define curves
node: endpoints of an arc, or
intersection of two arcs, including
features at the intersection (e.g.
stop lights)
polygon: an area defined by the
arcs making up its boundary

Vertice

Node

47

ESRI Vector Definitions: Topology

The spatial relationships between adjacent or connected primtives
(arcs, nodes, polygons, points).

from-node/to-node

fromnode

arcs have direction therefore

have:
left polygon/right polygon
(also, to-node
left side/right side feature
for arc # 3)
attributes (e.g. address range)
first from-node and last to-node
in polygon must be identical.

route: linear feature made up of

Route
two or more arcs
may be divided into sections
(arcs or portions of arcs)
Three
region: area made up of two or
polys
more polygons

1
3

right
polygon

tonode

Sections
2
3
1

Arcs

4
2

Region = Poly 2 & 3

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ArcView & ARC/INFO

Additional Terms/Concepts

annotation: feature labels & names

tic: points on map which are known
locations on earths surface; used for
registration; allow all coverages to
be related to a common coord.
system
links: forced connections or
snaps so features line up (e.g. at
map edges)
tile: map subdivision used for
storage/data handling; can be
regular (squares) or irregular (e.g. a
county)
map extent: outer limits of map:
xmin, xmax,ymin, ymax

Main Street

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