Topic 5 Innovation and

Design
13 Hours

The Design Cycle

The Design Cycle Model (DCM)

The DCM comprises four stages:

Analysis of a design opportunity
Conceptual design
Developing of a detailed design
Testing and evaluating the chosen solution

The model emphasizes the designing is not a linear

process.

Evaluation, for example, will take place at various

stages of the process, not just a the end. Similarly,
ideas for possible solutions can occur at many of the
stages.

In practice the model is not neatly organized as the

diagram suggests.

Analysis of a design
opportunity

The context of the problem is investigated and

described this leads to a concise design brief.
The design process can begin with :
A problem
An identified need
A market opportunity
A demand
A desire to add value to an existing product
A response to opportunities presented by
technological developments
The initial design problem is a loose collection of
constraints, requirements and possibilities
The design brief states the intended outcome and the
major constraints within which it must be achieved.

The design brief

The design brief is the formal starting point for a new

design, it is a statement of the expectations of the
design.

The brief does not provide the design solution, but is

a statement that sets out:
The design goal
The target market for the product
The major constraints within which it must be
achieved
The criteria by which a good design proposal may
be achieved.

Design specifications

A set of precise limits for the complete range of

performance requirements for the design of a
product.

The design specification justifies the precise

requirements of a design.

The specification will include a full list of the criteria

against which the specification can be evaluated.

Conceptual design

Researching the brief and producing a specification:

When the designer has a clear idea of what needs to be
done about the problem (the brief) it needs to be
researched in detail.
The information collected will be of help to the designer
during the initial ideas stage as a reference.
A specification is written out detailing the main
requirements that the end product must have in order for
it to be successful in solving the problem.
Developing the specification from the brief is an evolving
process.
Initially specifications are generated following the design
brief, they will then culminate in a final Product Design
Specification (PDS) usually after the research.
The PDS states and justifies the more precise limits set
for the complete range of performance requirements
The PDS will identify demands (requirements or features

Generating ideas and solutions

stage of the design cycle model

During this stage of the design process the designer works on

exploring and generating a range of initial ideas that may solve
the problem
The starting point for the generation of ideas should be the design
specification, and proposals should be evaluated against this
specification, with evidence of relevant research used to rate the
ideas in terms of their usefulness.
The designer uses a range of graphic drawing methods, computer
aided systems and models to communicate their ideas to others.
The designer will refer back to his research notes and
specifications to guide thinking and keep the ideas relevant.
A variety of approaches should be used, and different possibilities
explored and analyzed, before deciding on the most suitable
solution.
Divergent thinking is used to consider ways in which a problem
may be solved, for example, brainstorming, attribute listing or
your own originality

Development of a detailed
design

After ideas have been considered the best ideas are

developed and tested further with reference to
materials, sizes, joining, finishing, tools and
equipment.

It is possible that computer aided design (CAD),

computer aided manufacture, (CAM), and rapid
prototyping (3d printing) are used to model and test
the proposed solution.

The final drawings are generated using standard

specialist drawings such as, orthographic projection,
exploded isometric, and sectional drawings.

The final drawings give all the information needed to

manufacture the product.

Development of a detailed
design
At

this stage the designer plans for making. This

can use drawing and planning systems known as
Gantt charts and flow diagrams.
http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newPPM_03
.htm
This system can easily organize the making into
logical steps which should identify all the tools,
equipment, materials and processes needed for
realizing the final solution.
The making then proceeds using equipment in an
appropriate and safe manner.
During the making checks are regularly to ensure
the manufacturing is staying on task to meet the
intended high quality and standards imposed upon
it. These are known as quality checks.

Testing and evaluating

Testing may result in some problems being

identified that were not considered during the
design stages.
Designers often have to rethink their ideas, not
everything works as they would like it to.
It is always best if the designers can get it right
during the earlier design stages
Designers need to be determined people as they
often have to overcome set backs and rework
final solutions
Designs never stand still.

Divergent thinking

Using creative ability to produce a wide range of

possible solutions to a problem.
Divergent thinking is conceptual and problemfocused, for example, used to generate ideas
It is a thought process or method used to generate
creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions
It is often used in conjunction with convergent
thinking, which follows a particular set of logical steps
to arrive at one "correct" solution
Divergent thinking typically occurs in a spontaneous,
free-flowing manner, such that many ideas are
generated in a random, unorganized fashion
Many possible solutions are explored in a short
amount of time, through methods such as:
evaluating, brainstorming. attribute listing and
analysis, unexpected connections are often drawn

Convergent thinking

The ability to analyze information in order to select an

answer from alternatives.

Elements of the design model reflect convergent and

divergent thinking.

Convergent thinking is analytical and solutionfocused, for example, during evaluation it is the
opposite of divergent thinking

It generally means the ability to give the "correct"

answer to standard questions that do not require
significant creativity.

For instance in most tasks in school and on

standardized multiple-choice tests for intelligence.

Incremental
and radical
Design

Design work
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combination
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and radical
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Incremental and radical

design
For example, the
use of a new
material for a
product may be a
radical leap
forwards but the
product may look
very similar to
previous products:
golf clubs were
originally wood
and then moved
to steel.
A golf club made
from carbon fiber
is a radical
development, but
the shape and

Internal Assessment
Criterion

A: Analysis of a design opportunity

Clients and designers establish a design opportunity before
engaging with the design process. Establishing the design
opportunity often stems from a real-life problem, which needs
to be solved. By investigating this problem and design
opportunity thoroughly, designers can gain clear direction in
the requirements for a product. To meet the requirements of
this criterion, students must:
describe an appropriate problem, which leads to a design
opportunity
explain the key findings from relevant market and user
research
develop a detailed brief, which identifies the relevant
parameters of the problem
develop a marketing specification, which justifies the
requirements
Develop a design specification, which justifies the
requirements.

Internal Assessment
Assignment 1

Identifying a design opportunity.

The design problem should be clearly stated using

supporting materials, which may include:
photographs
extracts from letters, magazines and news articles

The written part of this report should be no less than

700 words. Supporting pictures, letters, news articles
should be annotated to show their relevance.

Internal Assessment
Assignment 1

Design of a survey to identify design opportunities.

Execution of a survey to identify design opportunities.
Analysis of a survey to identify design opportunities

5.1 INVENTION
Essential idea:
The protection of a novel idea of how to solve a
problem is a major factor in commercial design.

Invention

Invention: creation of new devices, objects,

ideas, or procedures useful in accomplishing
human objectives.

The process of invention is invariably

preceded by one or more discoveries that
help the inventor solve the problem at hand.

ln common usage the term invention is

applied only to the production of new
materials or operable devices, and the term
inventor is applied to a person who has
produced a new device or material.

Credit for invention has frequently been

claimed for someone who conceived an idea,
but the inventor is the person who not only
had the idea but also worked out the method
of putting it into practice.

Thus Leonardo Da Vinci conceived of flying

machines and self-propelled vehicles and
worked out ingenious possible designs, but he
did not invent either the airplane or the

Invention

The element of novelty has various forms; it may

be a new device or process, or even material, but
it may also consist of a combination of existing
knowledge in a manner not previously thought
of.

James Watt added a separate condensing

chamber - a new device - to Thomas
Newcomen's atmospheric engine and created the
steam engine.

The basic patent of the Wright brothers was

essentially a combination of existing techniques.
Their first invention was a controllable glider in
1902.

The 1902 glider was actually the first fully

controlled heavier-than-air craft, and some
historians believe it was the main invention essentially the invention of the airplane - and
more important than the 1903 powered biplane

Drivers for invention

Drivers

for invention include:

personal motivation to express creativity,
for personal interest,
scientific or technical curiosity,
constructive discontent,
desire to make money,
desire to help others

Designers and inventors

Design happens either by lone inventors or

collaborative teams.

Designers must not only be creative and innovative,

but also understand the concepts that will make a
new product viable.

A designer must use imagination and be firmly

grounded in factual and procedural knowledge while
remembering the needs and limitations of the end
user.

Lone inventor

An individual working on ones own who is committed to

the invention of a novel product

An individual working outside or inside an organization

who is committed to the invention of a novel product and
often becomes isolated because he or she is engrossed
with ideas that imply change and are resisted by others.
Such as Bill Gates (original DOS operating system) , Steve
Jobs (at the invention of the Apple IIe), James Dyson
(cyclone vacuum cleaners), Trevor Baylis (wind-up radio)
and Clive Sinclair.

Lone inventor

It is becoming increasingly difficult to be a successful lone

inventor.

Most products are now extremely complex and rely on

expertise from various disciplines.
Most designs are developed by multidisciplinary teams.
Lone inventors often find it difficult to work in the design
departments of large companies because they are often
used to setting their own targets rather than working as
members of teams.

Also they can be dogmatic in their methodology and less

flexible than team workers.

Intellectual Property (IP)

Intellectual property (IP) is a legal term that refers to

creations of the mind.

Examples of intellectual property include music, literature,

and other artistic works; discoveries and inventions; and
words, phrases, symbols, and designs.

Under intellectual property laws, owners of intellectual

property are granted certain exclusive rights.

Some common types of intellectual property rights (IPR)

are
copyright,
patents,
industrial design rights;
the rights that protect trademarks,

tm

trade dress,
and in some jurisdictions trade secrets.

Intellectual Property (IP)

Benefits of IP include:
differentiating a business from competitors,
selling or licensing to provide revenue streams,
offering customers something new and different,
marketing/branding,
its value as an asset

Patent

A set of exclusive rights granted to an inventor or their

assignee for a limited period of time in exchange for a
public disclosure of an invention.
The exclusive right granted to a patentee in most
countries is the right to prevent others from making,
using. selling, or distributing the patented invention
without permission.
Early inventors were usually isolated and unable to
support themselves through their inventions.
ln some cases, although two individuals working
independently achieved the same innovation
simultaneously, only one is recognized for the discovery.
For example, the inventors Elisha Gray and Alexander
Graham Bell applied for a patent on the telephone on the
same day. With financing from his American father-inlaw, on March 7, 1876,lhe U.S. Patent Office granted Bell
Patent Number 174,465 covering the telephone.
http://www.uspto.gov/

Patent

A patent is (or can be) a very valuable piece of property.

It is therefore not surprising that it is difficult, expensive
and time-consuming to obtain.
lt requires a lot of hard work and research, or pay a
professional patent agent to do some of the work.
The need for the idea to be patentable is an inventive
step. This means that the invention must not be obvious
to someone who is "skilled in the art" to which the
invention relates. [1-click]
To decide whether the idea is inventive, it is necessary to
find out what has been done before in the relevant field.
Professional searchers can be employed to look through
earlier patents and patent applications but this will
inevitably be expensive and will probably only result in a
small mountain of documents in several different
languages which will then have to be deciphered.

Trade Secrets

A trade secret is information that is intentionally kept

confidential and that provides a competitive advantage to
its possessor.

Trade secrets are protected by nondisclosure agreements

and employment law, each of which prevents information
leaks such as breaches of confidentiality and corporate
espionage.

Compared to patents, the advantages of trade secrets are

that the value of a trade secret continues until it is made public,
whereas a patent is only in force for a specified time, after which
others may freely copy the invention;
does not require payment of fees to governmental agencies or filing
paperwork; has an immediate effect;
and does not require any disclosure of information to the public.

The key disadvantage of a trade secret is its vulnerability

to reverse engineering.

Copywrite
Copyright

is a legal right created by the law of a country that

grants the creator of an original work exclusive rights to its use
and distribution, usually for a limited time, with the intention of
enabling the creator (e.g. the photographer of a photograph or
the author of a book) to receive compensation for their
intellectual effort.
The exclusive rights are, however, not absolute and do not give
the creator total control of their works because they are limited
by limitations and exceptions to copyright law.
Copyright is a form of intellectual property, applicable to any
expressed representation of a creative work.
It is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds
a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are
commonly referred to as rights-holders.
These rights frequently include reproduction, control over
derivative works, distribution, public performance, and "moral
rights" such as attribution.

Trade Mark,

TM

A trademark, trade mark, or trade-mark is a

recognizable sign, design or expression which identifies
products or services of a particular source from those of
others.
The trademark owner can be an individual, business
organization, or any legal entity.
A trademark may be located on a package, a label, a
voucher or on the product itself.
For the sake of corporate identity trademarks are also
being displayed on company buildings.

Trade Mark

The essential function of a trademark is to exclusively identify the

commercial source or origin of products or services, so a trademark,
properly called, indicates source or serves as a badge of origin.

In other words, trademarks serve to identify a particular business as

the source of goods or services.

The use of a trademark in this way is known as trademark use.

Certain exclusive rights attach to a registered mark.

It should be noted that trademark rights generally arise out of the

use of, or to maintain exclusive rights over, that sign in relation to
certain products or services, assuming there are no other trademark
objections.

Different goods and services have been classified by the

International (Nice) Classification of Goods and Services into 45
Trademark Classes (1 to 34 cover goods, and 35 to 45 services).

The idea behind this system is to specify and limit the extension of
the intellectual property right by determining which goods or
services are covered by the mark, and to unify classification systems
around the world.

The effectiveness of strategies for protecting IP

Research and write a report on effective strategies for

protecting Intellectual Property (500 words).

The following links may help you however you should

do your own search to ensure you get a broad range of
strategies.

In your report include reasons why some innovators

decide not to protect their IP and what their alternate
strategies entail.

http
://web.stanford.edu/group/biodesign/cgi-bin/ebiodesign/
index.php/development-strategy/ip-strategy-menu
http://
www.technologyforge.net/MHPCV/GlobalPatentIPJ.pdf

http://
www.ipr-policy.eu/media/pts/1/Brand_Enforcement_Manua
l_FINAL.pdf

Reasons why some patented inventions are shelved

http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Patents.aspx

One of the economic arguments for patents emphasizes

the benefits society can derive from the disclosure of
secret technological information made public through the
patents.
Society pays for these benefits with grants of exclusive
rights as it offers temporary monopolies in exchange for
the surrender of monopolies through secrecy.

Nonworking of patented inventions has been high on the

list of grievances against patent protection
One must distinguish between the nonuse of inventions
whose use would be uneconomic and the suppression
of inventions that could be used economically.
Under the laws of some countries, insufficient working
is regarded as an abuse of the patent monopoly, as is the
charging of excessive prices for patented articles. This
is very hard to prove in law.

Internal Assessment
Assignment 2
Explains

the key findings from relevant

market and user research
The key findings should be provided in a
summative form that shows evidence of:
(a) quantitative and qualitative data collected
using a range of techniques and appropriate
primary and secondary sources
(b) an analysis of competing or similar
products.
The written part of this report should be no less
than 700 words. Supporting tables and graphs
should be properly captioned and labelled.

Internal Assessment
Assignment 2
If

you have no ideas for a product at this time

Survey fellow students, family and friends (at least 30 people).

Ask them about products they have needed but been unable
to find, especially low tech items, as you are not going to be
able to design a prototype of something that needs very
sophisticated technology.
If

you have some ideas for a product at this

time
Survey fellow students, family and friends (at least 30 people)
Ask them whether or not they would be interested in buying
the product, and if so, how much they would be willing to pay
for it.
Ask questions about materials they would expect the product
to be made from and about colors an surface finishes.

For

both type of survey use a voice recorder to keep a

record of the responses.

Theory of Knowledge

What is the role of imagination in invention?

Are there limits to what can be imagined?

Sometimes there are unforeseen consequences of

inventions. To what extent might lack of knowledge
be an excuse for unethical conduct?

5.2 INNOVATION
Essential idea:
There are many different types of innovation.

Innovation

Innovation should always occur in context and a deep

understanding of the culture.

Also knowledge of the behaviours, needs and wants

of the consumer is required.

Find a gap in
the market but dont fall
down it

The design process and the

product cycle.

The design process:

1.

Often starts when someone finds a gap in the market.

2.

It is important to work out what group of people you

want to sell your product to the target market.

3.

The next stage is to design a new product to fill the

gap and to meet the needs of the target market

4.

The new product then needs to be manufactured and

then marketed to the target market using various
marketing techniques advertising, free samples, etc.

Innovation

Innovation is the business of putting

an invention in the marketplace and
making it a success.
For innovation to occur, something
more than the generation of a creative
idea or insight is required.
The insight must be put into action to
make a genuine difference, resulting
for example in new or altered business
processes within the organization, or
changes in the products and services
provided.
lt can be viewed as the useful
application of new inventions or
discoveries.
Examples of Innovative design.
The iwatch
The Gluco M wrist band that monitors

The stages of innovation

Developing an idea into a viable product.

Production.

Marketing and sales.

Redesign; and the cycle or spiral continues.

For continued innovation (re-innovation), products and

processes are constantly updated (re-designed) to make
them more commercially viable and to give consumers
choice and improved products.

The iwatch is an example of product re-innovation.

The Gluco M wrist band is in its early stages of product

innovation.

The importance of science to

invention and innovation

Science and scientific understanding explains how the

world is.

Without this the technology used by the product

cannot be exploited.

Science is not invented it already exists.

Scientific principles are used in new contexts.

Sometimes called transfer technology.

Scientific research uncovers new possibilities for a

product or process.

For example,Teflon ( non stick pans are just one of

many applications for PTFE, Teflon. )

The importance of technology

to invention and innovation

Technology uncovers new possibilities for materials,

manufacturing techniques and processes.

Advances in technology aids invention and innovation

which leads to new or cheaper products through advances
in materials, manufacturing techniques, and processes.

The advance in technology improves product quality.

The internet and mobile phone are communication

technologies which were non-existent thirty years ago.

Due to the increased scientific research, there has been

an exponential increase in the advancement of
technology.

Why the majority of inventions

fail to become innovations

Marketability
Low product demand or not readily saleable.
Financial support
There is little monetary backing from the organization
or an outsider.
The invention would need more sponsors to financially
aid the product.
Marketing
Marketing is the process of getting products from the
producer or vendor to the consumer or buyer, which
includes advertising, shipping, storing, and selling.
Poor marketing strategies or wrong target markets.
The invention would need to be advertised as a
product the public would want.
Trends in innovation.

Why the majority of inventions

fail to become innovations

The need for the invention

Examples include alternative energy resources to combat our
need for oil; however if oil prices are low or there is a ready
supply of oil then the alternative energy invention will not take
hold.

Price
Affordable, cost effectiveness or value for money ... therefore it
may be too expensive to purchase, or to manufacture and the
consumer may not see it worth its cost compared to its use.
Keep in mind, the product's price needs to be equivalent to the
income of the specific age group that would buy the majority
of the product.

Resistance to change
People and organizations can be resistant and reluctant to
change, feeling comfort and security in the familiar thus
resist new ideas/products.

Aversion to risk

Stage 1 of Innovation

This stage is about generating ideas and developing

them into a concept that can be communicated and
discussed.

Suggest different ways in which the communication

can take place.

Stage 1 of Innovation

The concept development phase includes identifying

the link with the market and customer needs and the
value to the stakeholders
Company
Customer
Society

How would the perspective of the three types of

stakeholder listed above differ from one another?

The relevance of design to

innovation

For continued innovations (re-innovation), products

and processes are constantly updated (redesigned)
to make them more commercially viable and to give
consumers choice and improved products.
The majority of products that remain in the market
place for a considerable period of time are subject to
re-innovation to keep ahead of competition, fulfill
consumer needs and increase demand.
A new model usually means an increase in sales.
Design is vital to innovation which is the key to
developing products and services.
Design-led innovation allows the organization to
focus on the customer as a strategy for development
and a collaborator in mutual service innovation.

Dominant Design

A design that contains those implicit features of a

product that are recognized as essential by a majority
of manufacturers and purchasers

Dominant Design

It is a concept identifying key features in designs that

become a traditional standard in the market place.
Dominant designs don't necessarily have to be better
than other designs found on the market, however they
will provide a minimum required set of important and
basic features.
Definition of dominant designs according to Webster's
Dictionary
: A standard, which becomes generally accepted after a
period of rapid technological change
Example: The "QWERTY" keyboard layout was specifically
designed (to make people inefficient) to replace the flaws
of the mechanical typewriter by changing the order of the
letters on the keyboard.
Now it is recognized as well used worldwide and preferred
over the more logical and formal keyboard layouts.
By the way, did you know that you can type faster one

Sustaining and Disruptive

Innovation
Sustaining
An

innovation that does not affect existing

markets.
May be either: Evolutionary
An innovation that improves a product in an
existing market in ways that customers are
expecting. (e.g., fuel injection)
Or, Revolutionary (discontinuous, radical)
An innovation that is unexpected, but
nevertheless does not affect existing markets.
(e.g., the automobile)

Sustaining and Disruptive

Innovation

Disruptive

An innovation that creates a new market by applying a

different set of values, which ultimately (and unexpectedly)
overtakes an existing market. (e.g., the lower priced Ford
Model T

Sustaining innovations are typically innovations in

technology, whereas disruptive innovations cause changes to
markets. For example, the automobile was a revolutionary
technological innovation, but it was not a disruptive
innovation, because early automobiles were expensive
luxury items that did not disrupt the market for horse-drawn
vehicles. The market for transportation essentially remained
intact until the debut of the lower priced Ford Model T in
1908. The mass-produced automobile was a disruptive
innovation, because it changed the transportation market.
The automobile, by itself, was not.

Examples of disruptive
innovations

Reference materials

Disruptive innovation: Wikipedia

Market disrupted by innovation: Traditional encyclopedias

Traditionally edited general encyclopedias have been

displaced by Wikipedia, the free, non-profit, communityedited online encyclopedia. Former market leader
Encyclopdia Britannica ended print production after 244
years in 2012. Britannica's price of over $1000, its physical
size of dozens of volumes, its weight of over 100 pounds,
and its update cycles lasting a year or longer were all
annulled by Wikipedia. Microsoft's Encarta, a 1993 entry
into professionally edited digital encyclopedias, was once a
major rival to Britannica but was discontinued in 2009.
Wikipedia's lack of price, unlimited size and instant updates
are the primary challenges for profitable competition in the
consumer market.

Examples of disruptive
innovations

Communications

Disruptive innovation: Telephone

Market disrupted by innovation: Telegraph

When Western Union infamously declined to purchase

Alexander Graham Bell's telephone patents for
$100,000, their highest-profit market was longdistance telegraphy. Telephones were only useful for
very local calls. Short-distance telegraphy barely
existed as a market segment, which explains Western
Union's decision.

Examples of disruptive
innovations

Computer hardware

Disruptive innovation: Minicomputers

Market disrupted by innovation: Mainframes

Minicomputers were originally presented as an

inexpensive alternative to mainframes and
mainframe manufacturers did not consider them a
serious threat in their market. Eventually, the market
for minicomputers (led by Seymor Craydaisy
chaining his minisupercomputers) became much
larger than the market for mainframes.

Examples of disruptive
innovations

Computer hardware

Disruptive innovation: Personal computers

Market disrupted by innovation: Minicomputers,

mainframe workstations, word processors

Examples of disruptive
innovations

Computing hardware

Disruptive innovation: Smartphones

Market disrupted by innovation: Personal computers,

MP3 players, Personal Digital Assistants (PDA)

Smartphones and tablets are more portable than

traditional PC's.

Examples of disruptive
innovations

Domestic lighting

Disruptive innovation: Compact florescent light bulbs

(pigtails)

Market disrupted by innovation: Incandescent light

bulbs

Longer life time, lower power consumption.

Examples of disruptive
innovations

Domestic lighting

Disruptive innovation: LED light bulbs

Market disrupted by innovation: Compact florescent

light bulbs (pigtails)

Longer life time, lower power consumption.

Examples of disruptive
innovations

Video display

Disruptive innovation: Liquid crystal display (LCD)

Market disrupted by innovation: Cathode ray tube

The first liquid crystal displays (LCD) were

monochromatic and had low resolution. They were
used in watches and other handheld devices, but
during the early 2000s these (and other planar
technologies) largely replaced the dominant cathode
ray tube (CRT) technology for computer displays and
television sets, although CRT technologies have
improved with advances like true-flat panels and
digital controls only recently

Examples of disruptive
innovations

Manufacturing materials

Disruptive innovation: Plastic

Market disrupted by innovation: wood, glass, and

metal

Bakelite and other early plastics had very limited use

- their main advantages were electric insulation and
low cost. New forms had advantages such as
transparency, elasticity and combustibility. In the
early 21st century, plastics can be used for nearly all
household items previously made of metal, wood and
glass.

Examples of disruptive
innovations

Medical

Disruptive innovation: Ultrasound

Market disrupted by innovation: Radiography (X-ray

imaging)

Ultrasound technology is disruptive relative to X-ray

imaging. Ultrasound was a new-market disruption.
None of the X-ray companies participated in
ultrasound until they acquired major ultrasound
equipment companies.

Examples of disruptive
innovations

Music

Disruptive innovation: Downloadable digital media

Market disrupted by innovation: CDs, DVDs

In the 1990s, the music industry phased out the

single, leaving consumers with no means to purchase
individual songs. This market was initially filled by
illegal peer-to-peer file sharing technologies, and then
by online retailers such as the iTunes Store and
Amazon.com. This low end disruption eventually
undermined the sales of physical, high-cost CDs

Examples of disruptive
innovations

Photography

Disruptive innovation: Kodak Brownie

Market disrupted by innovation: Professional

photography

The introduction of the Kodak Brownie in 1900 it

offered cheap and easy use of photography to adults
and children alike.

Kodak Brownie Holiday

Camera 1953

Examples of disruptive
innovations

Photography

Disruptive innovation: Digital photography

Market disrupted by innovation: Chemical photography

Early digital cameras suffered from low picture quality and

resolution and long shutter lag. Quality and resolution are
no longer major issues and shutter lag is much less than it
used to be. The convenience of small memory cards and
portable hard drives that hold hundreds or thousands of
pictures, as well as the lack of the need to develop these
pictures, also helped. Digital cameras have a high power
consumption (but several lightweight battery packs can
provide enough power for thousands of pictures). Cameras
for classic photography are stand-alone devices. In the
same manner, high-resolution digital video recording has
replaced film stock, except for high-budget motion pictures
and fine art.

Examples of disruptive
innovations

Food

Disruptive innovation: Agriculture

Market disrupted by innovation: Hunter-gatherers

Agriculture has displaced the process of hunting

across almost all of the world, increasing food yields
and making so almost no one today lives as nomads.

Process Innovation

A process innovation is the implementation of a new

or significantly improved production or delivery
method. This includes significant changes in
techniques, equipment and/or software.

Examples of process innovation

Pilkington Floating Glass method

Until the 16th century, window glass or flat glass was
generally cut from large discs (or rondels) of crown glass.
Larger sheets of glass were made by blowing large
cylinders which were cut open and flattened, then cut into
panes. Most window glass in the early 19th century was
made using the cylinder method. The 'cylinders' were 6 to 8
feet (180 to 240cm) long and 10 to 14 inches (25 to 36cm)
in diameter, limiting the width that panes of glass could be
cut, and resulting in windows divided by transoms into
rectangular panels
Float glass is a sheet of glass made by floating molten
glass on a bed of molten metal, typically tin. This method
gives the sheet uniform thickness and very flat surfaces.
Modern windows are made from float glass. The float glass
process is also known as the Pilkington process, named
after the British glass manufacturer Pilkington, which
pioneered the technique (invented by Sir Alastair

Examples of process innovation

The production line

Fords first use of the production line by bringing

product to the person during fabrication

Examples of process innovation

Prototype production

Computer aided design (CAD) and 3D printing

Incremental vs. Modular vs. Architectural vs.

Radical Innovation

Incremental innovation introduces quality

improvements in core components. The word
renovation would more precisely describe this type of
innovation.
Modular innovation may result in the complete
redesign of core components, while leaving linkages
between the components unchanged.
Architectural innovation changes the nature of
interactions between core components, while
reinforcing the core design concepts.
Radical innovation introduces a new meaning,
potentially a paradigm shift.

Incremental vs. Modular vs.

Architectural vs. Radical
Innovation

Innovation strategies for design: architectural innovation

A component innovation results in modular changes

within the system without altering the overall design
of it.

Whereas, an architectural innovation accompanies a

modification in the overall system and/or linkages
between different components of it.

For example, electric vehicle is an architectural

innovation whereas a novel petrol filter is a modular
innovation.

Configurational Innovation
theory of innovation diffusion is also
Configurational

known as the CLER model.

Diffusion of an innovation, D, or implementation of

planned change, is a function of

(C) social or configurational relationships, the social

structure,

(L) linkages, both formal and informal, between the

innovator and adopter actors

(E) environments surrounding the innovator and the

adopters

(R) resources available to the innovator system for

promoting change, and to the adopter system for
incorporating and maintaining change.

This the model could be represented as:

Theory of Knowledge
Design

is always looking to the

future and new development.
Do other areas of knowledge
have universal, timeless truths or
are they continually in flux?

5.3 STRATEGIES FOR

INNOVATION
Essential idea:
Designers have a range of strategies for
innovation.

Nature of design
Companies

encourage advancements in
technology and services, usually by investing in
research and development (R&D) activities.
Even though the R&D may be carried out by a
range of different experts from varied fields of
research, the development process is often
based on common principles and strategies to
identify the direction of development.
This methodology structures the R&D of new
technologies and services.

Act of insight

George de Mestral returned from a hunting trip with

his dog in the Alps in 1941 After removing several of
the burdock burrs (seeds) that kept sticking to his
clothes and his dog's fur, he became curious as to
how it worked.

He examined them under a microscope, and noted

hundreds of "hooks" that caught on anything with a
loop, such as clothing, animal fur, or hair. He saw the
possibility of binding two materials reversibly in a
simple fashion, if he could figure out how to duplicate
the hooks and loops.

After much research and development he submitted

his idea for patent on Velcro in Switzerland in 1951.

Act of insight

Percy Shaw was a road mender who was aware of the

dangers of driving along unlit, often fog-bound, roads.

One night in 1933 he was driving his car near his

home in the north of England when his headlights
were reflected in the eyes of a cat.

This inspired him to invent the cat's-eye reflector

that, when embedded at intervals in the center of the
road, reflected a vehicle's headlights and made it
easier to pick out and follow the course of the road.

A modern refinement are intelligent road studs that

not only reflect but can also actively project light of
different colors.

Act of insight

What do these two examples tell you about insight?

Is insight always serendipitous?

In your opinion what role does insight play in

innovation?

Do you think lot of inventing is about trusting your

instincts, give your reasons.

Do you believe that naivet is one of the greatest

traits of an inventor, give your reasons.

In undertaking your internal assessment project, how

could you utilize acts of insight?

Constructive discontent

Ron Hickman was a do-it-yourself enthusiast who

damaged a chair being used to support a piece of
wood he was sawing.

Instead of merely being annoyed at the accident he

set about designing and building a prototype of a
combined workbench and sawhorse to prevent further
damage to his furniture.

This became the Workmate, which to date has sold

well over 50 million units.

Constructive discontent

James Dyson was unhappy with the

reduced suction power of his
domestic vacuum cleaner as the bag
filled with dust.

So he took the industrial cyclone

technology used to extract harmful
particles by centrifugal force from
factory paint shops and sawmills,
scaled it down and applied it to
improve the performance of domestic
cleaners.

His bagless cyclone cleaner has had

worldwide success

Constructive discontent

The ballpoint pen was invented by Laszlo

Biro in 1938.

The first Biro pen to go on sale in 1946 cost

$7.70 at a time when the average weekly
wage was $16.

It required refills and service to be carried

out by the retailer.

However, in 1953, Marcel Bich developed a

process for manufacture and assembly of
ballpoint pens that dramatically increased
the volume of production and reduced the
cost of each pen.

Nowadays you can buy a box of 60 BiC pens

for $5.38 at Sams Club (less than 9 cents
each, with average weekly wages at $808).

More than 5 billion BiC ballpoints are being

sold each year (around 14 million each
day).

Constructive discontent

Analyzing a situation which would benefit from redesign, and working out a strategy for improving it.

Constructive discontent is necessary for a creative

problem solver, for if you are happy with everything
the way it is, you won't want to change anything.

Only when you become discontent with something,

when you see a problem, will you want to solve the
problem and improve the situation.

Constructive discontent

What do the examples tell you about constructive

discontent?

Are insight and constructive discontent very different

from one another, or do they overlap, justify your
response?

How could we use constructive discontent to aid us in

the development of our internal assessment project?

Adaptation

A solution to a problem in one field is used to provide

a new idea for a design problem in another.

Adaptation

The kingfisher has evolved to tolerate great changes

in pressure as it dives from air into water.

Great changes of pressure occur when the bullet train

enters tunnels.

The design of the bullet train is an adaptation of the

natural design of the kingfisher.

Analogy

The transfer of an idea from one context to another.

Substantial innovations often result from transferring

problem solutions from one industry or domain to
another.

1.

2.

3.

The process of innovation by

analogy
REFRAME the problem. Re-state it making different
assumptions as you go. You might want to reframe
multiple times to force yourself to consider a richer array
of solutions.
ASK What is it like? Use analogies, metaphors and
associations to connect other situations to your newly
framed problem statements. As an example, one oil
pipeline company concerned with the habitual problem of
leaks, considered the process of clotting in the human
blood stream as their analogy. They investigated what
chemical additives they could add to the pipeline
contents that would exhibit similar clotting behaviors as
human blood when exposed to air.)
ASK Who (or what) else solves this problem?
Think about other organizations products, groups
companies (most likely outside of your industry) who
have tackled the aspect of the problem you are now
considering. Think also about examples from nature.
Then study them.

Analogy -example

The designer of the new running shoe generation of

Nike, Nike SHOX

Transferred the technology applied to Formula 1

racing car suspension to the shock absorbing heals of
the new shoes.

Analogy -example

TULIP CHAIR (1955)

Designed by Eero Saarinen (1910-51)

Sold by Knoll 1955 to present

Analogy -example

The lotus effect refers to self-cleaning properties that are a

result of very high water repellence (superhydrophobicity), as
exhibited by the leaves of the lotus flower (Nelumbo). Dirt
particles are picked up by water droplets due to the micro- and
nanoscopic architecture on the surface, which minimizes the
droplet's adhesion to that surface.

When it was discovered that the self-cleaning qualities of

superhydrophobic surfaces come from physical-chemical
properties at the microscopic to nanoscopic scale, rather than
from the specific chemical properties of the leaf surface the
discovery opened up the possibility of using this effect in
manmade surfaces, by mimicking nature in a general way
rather than a specific one.

Some nanotechnologists have developed treatments, coatings,

paints, roof tiles, fabrics and other surfaces that can stay dry
and clean themselves by replicating in a technical manner the
self-cleaning properties of plants, such as the lotus plant.

Analogy

How can analogy help you with your design project?

Chance or insight?

Fleming recounted that the date of his discovery of

penicillin was on the morning of Friday, September
28, 1928. The traditional version of this story
describes the discovery as a fortuitous accident: in his
laboratory in the basement of St Mary's Hospital in
London, Fleming noticed a Petri dish containing
Staphylococcus that had been mistakenly left open,
was contaminated by blue-green mould from an open
window, which formed a visible growth. There was a
halo of inhibited bacterial growth around the mould.
Fleming concluded that the mould released a
substance that repressed the growth and caused
lysing of the bacteria

Market Pull

The initial impetus for the development of a new product is

generated by a demand from the market.

Examples of market influences include;

a demand from consumers for new or improved products.
a competing product is launched by another
manufacturer.
a manufacturer wants to increase their share of the
market.

This is also called consumer pull.

Market research plays an important role in the

development of new products. Manufacturers can draw
upon useful information already available within their
organization.

Sales and accounts departments will maintain records that

can indicate which products and accounts are most
profitable and will show if there is a pattern in the sales of
particular products.

Market Pull

Write a series of questions that you could ask of

fellow students, friends and family that would reveal a
demand from consumers for new or improved
product.

Conduct the survey this is part of Explains the

key findings from relevant market and user
research of assignment 2

Market Pull approaches

In a marketing "pull" system, the consumer requests the

product and "pulls" it through the delivery channel.
An example of this is the car manufacturing company Ford
Australia. Ford Australia only produces cars when they have
been ordered by the customers.
Applied to that portion of the supply chain where demand
uncertainty is high
Production and distribution are demand driven
No inventory, response to specific orders
Has low market related risk because demand is known to exist
Has low technology related risk because solution is known
Point of sale (POS) data comes in handy when shared with
supply chain partners
Decrease in lead time (the delay between the initiation and
execution of a process).
Difficult to implement.

Technology Push

Where the impetus for a new design emanates from a

technological development.
Products may be re-designed because of changes in
materials or manufacturing methods.
This is called technology push.
Technological changes may allow a manufacturer to make
the product more cheaply, or more efficiently.
This can reduce manufacturing costs.

Technology Push

Technology Push approaches:

Typified by programs, but not necessarily software
programs
lnternal development comes up with a patent or a
technological device to fulfill the need of a customer
Has high market related risk because application is not
known
Has low technology related risk because application is
known
lnnovation is created, then appropriate applications
are sought to fit the innovation
Did the market ask "please give me an iPod with
download store" or a camera phone? Most likely not;
so this would be technology push.

Theory of Knowledge
Design

is continually changing
due to its openness to new ideas.
Do other areas of knowledge
recognize new influences to the
same extent?

5.4 Stakeholders in
invention and innovation
Essential idea:
There are three key roles in invention and
innovation, which can be shared by one or
more people.

Internal Assessment
Assignment 3

Develops a detailed brief which identifies the

relevant parameters of the problem

A design brief comprises the expected outcome and

broad requirements determined from the market and
user research. The feasibility of the project should
also be considered.

The written part of this report should be no less than

300 words. Supporting diagrams should be properly
captioned and labelled.

Stakeholders in invention and

innovation

Collaborative generation of knowledge and high

efficiency information flow allow for diversity,
increased resilience, reliability and stability within an
organization. Through participatory research,
stakeholders can make full use of the resulting
innovation and invention, by transferring findings
relevant to the sector in which they are positioned. A
designers increased awareness through shared
industry knowledge enhances profitability and policy.

There are three key roles in

invention and innovation
The

inventor
The product champion
The entrepreneur
On occasion, the inventor needs to act as both
entrepreneur and product champion. The
adoption of these additional roles requires a
significant amount of learning to take an idea
from the mind, realize it and then diffuse it
successfully into the marketplace.

Product Champion

An influential individual, usually working within an

organization, who develops an enthusiasm for a
particular idea or invention and "champions" it within
that organization.
A product champion is a person who takes an inordinate
interest in seeing that a particular process or product is
fully developed and marketed.
The role varies from situations calling for little more than
stimulating awareness of the item to extreme cases in
which the champion tries to force the item past the
strongly entrenched internal resistance of company
policy or that of objecting parties.
The lone inventor may lack the business acumen to push
the invention through to innovation. The product
champion is often a forceful personality with much
influence in a company.
He or she is more astute at being able to push the idea

Invention success factors

Inventors go through the following phases;

Inspiration: they think of a great idea !

Aspiration: they seek help to prove the concept, build
prototypes etc.
Perspiration: they strive to get products to market (with
a little help from others) .
They need complementary skills. Business
Development, Sales and marketing, Project
Management, Design, Engineering, Legal, Finance,
Manufacturing.
Traditionally, the major difficulty for inventors is getting
serious investors to commit to new inventions.
The main problem is the oldest one - in the eyes of the
business community, the lone inventor lacks credibility.

Innovators may have difficulty

in obtaining financial support
for an invention

Most people with money to invest will be inclined to wait

until it is clearer whether an invention is going to be
successful before investing: the problem is to get them to
take the risk.
Innovation requires: Taking risk, exploration and
experimentation, focus on customer needs (latent and
explicit). These are all things that designers are trained to
be good at; designers can also help communicate novel
and complicated concepts to customers in easily accessible
ways.
It is a reality that many inventions never get off the ground
or remain unknown because of a lack of adequate funding
research, development, testing, marketing and production
are just a few of the costly factors involved in taking an
invention off of the drawing board and into society.

Entrepreneurship

Entrepreneurship is the process of starting a business

or other organization.

The entrepreneur develops a business plan, acquires

the human and other required resources, and is fully
responsible for its success or failure

The entrepreneur is commonly seen as an innovator

a generator of new ideas and business processes.

Management skill and strong team building abilities

are often perceived as essential leadership attributes
for successful entrepreneurs.

Political economist Robert Reich considers leadership,

management ability, and team-building to be
essential qualities of an entrepreneur

Predictors of
entrepreneurial success

Factors that may predict entrepreneurial success

include the following:

Market

Business-to-business (B2B) model, not business-toconsumer (B2C)

High growth market

Target customer's missed by others

Industry

Growing industry

High technology impact on the industry

Low capital intensity

Small average incumbent firm size

Predictors of
entrepreneurial success

Factors that may predict entrepreneurial success include

the following:

Team

Large, diverse venture team, not individual entrepreneurs

Graduate degrees

Management experience

Work experience in the start-up industry

Employed full-time prior to new venture, as opposed to

unemployed

Prior successful entrepreneurial experience

Full-time involvement in the new venture

Motivated by high profits, not independence

Number and diversity of individual's social ties

Predictors of
entrepreneurial success

Factors that may predict entrepreneurial success include

the following:

Company

Written business plan

Activity focused on a single product or service

Competition based on a dimension other than price

Early, frequent and intense marketing

Tight financial controls

$100,000+ start-up capital

Corporation, not sole proprietorship

Status

Wealth

Dominant Race, Ethnicity, or Gender in a Socially Stratified

Culture

Predictors of entrepreneurial
failure
Low

Business Acumen, failing to add value in

consumers lives.
Jack of all Trade, doing what everyone is doing
and not doing what one can do the best.
Short-sightedness, failing to create long lasting
solutions for todays vices.
Extravagance, satisfying unnecessary wants and
misuse of resources at hand.
Insecurity, not building an efficient team

Theory of Knowledge
Design

favours collective
wisdom. Do other areas of
knowledge value collaborative
thinking?

5.5 THE PRODUCT

CYCLE
Essential idea:
There are several key stages in the product life
cycle.

The product cycle.

Designers need to consider the whole product cycle

with respect to how they may have an impact not
only on the direct consumer but also on society at
large and the environment.

Decline

Maturity

Growth

Introduction

Sales

Every product has a life cycle

Time

Every product has a life

cycle
INTRODUCTION
GROWTH
The new product is
launched.
Launching is expensive
you have to pay the
designer and spend a lot on
marketing.

If the products successful, sales

go up, manufacturing costs go
down because of mass
production and your profits
increase. Competitors will start
to introduce similar products

Decline
The sales fall, and your
profits shrink and
eventually the product is
withdrawn from sale and
replaced by a new one

Maturity
When the product is well known,
sales are high, but there are
more competitors. So your
product may have to be reduced
in price, and there are fewer
new customers

Evolution
You could change
the design a bit, to
make it better, and
re-launch it, Or it

The role of the designer in the

product cycle

Designers are very much involved in the development of the

product before it is introduced to the market.

They may view the product cycle in either of the following ways:

The role of the designer in the

product cycle

Designing is part of the product cycle: as a need is generated,

a product is designed, made and sold; eventually it becomes
obsolete.

The cycle is complicated by distributors, retailers, accountants

and production engineers, all of whom have an influence over
the cycle.

Although the designer is an integral part of the process, he or

she is not necessarily in control (unlike in the design process).

Computer-aided design (CAD) and computer aided

manufacture (CAM), where a prototype is produced by the
designer from his or her personal computer (PC), blurs this
distinction.

The product cycle in terms of

early, mature and late stages of
development.

In the early stages of the product cycle, many

changes to the product take place until it develops to
the mature stage, where it is diffused into the market,
gains acceptance and sells well.

In the late stage, the product begins to decline in

market need or desirability and therefore in sales.

Identify products that are at the

early, mature and late stages of
their product cycle.

The ballpoint pen is in the mature stage, as it still sells

well although the design does not change much.

The cassette tape is in the late stage, as it has been

overtaken by successive generations of products.

Pop Quiz (5 minutes) Identify products that are at the early, mature and late stages of their product cycle.

Name three products, not already mentioned that

are, at the early stage

Name three products, not already mentioned that

are, at the mature stage

Name three products, not already mentioned that

are, at the late stage

In 2004

Homework

Walk around your home and place as many

manufactured products as you can on the Stages of
the Product Life Cycle graph.

Product Life Cycle - Some Products

Have Obsolescence Built In
If

the stuff you bought lasted forever, there'd be no more

jobs for designers and manufacturers.
Luckily for them, that's not how it works. That product lifecycle just keeps on going, because:
1.Many products do eventually break.
2.Other products become so out of date that you can't use
them (computers that are incompatible with new software,
say) or you don't want to (because everyone else has
newer, better stuff).
3.This stage - when a product is useless and the consumer
has to replace it - is called obsolescence.
4.Sometimes designers deliberately design stuff so that it'll
become useless quite quickly. This is called built-in
obsolescence. Here are some ways to do it.

Product Life Cycle - Some Products

Have Obsolescence Built In
Make the design poor quality - so the product breaks
quickly.
Design the product so it's impossible or really
expensive to repair or update.
Make the design really up to the minute - so that it's
bound to become unfashionable quickly.
This has advantages and disadvantages

Built-in obsolescence drives innovation in new

replacement products and keeps designers and
manufacturers in jobs.
But your customers might just get annoyed if they
have to replace the product really soon, and never
buy anything from you again.
Also, it's not great for the environment. You end up
with mountains of thrown away products. And

Product Life Cycle

Some products are designed

for maintenance

Some products would be really expensive or

inconvenient to keep replacing.

Take road signs, for example - it would be dangerous

to keep taking them down and replacing them.

Your customers for products like this want them to be

maintainable.

E.g. road signs have surfaces that are easy to clean,

and a paneled structure that's easy to repair.

International mindedness

The transition from a linear to a circular economy in

the move towards sustainable societies has major
implications for the ideas associated with product life
cycle.

Theory of Knowledge

Design considers areas other than man in its thinking.

Are other areas of knowledge confined to human
influence and values?

International mindedness

The transition from a linear to a circular economy in

the move towards sustainable societies has major
implications for the ideas associated with product life
cycle.

Theory of Knowledge

Design considers areas other than man in its thinking.

Are other areas of knowledge confined to human
influence and values?

5.6 ROGERS CHARACTERISTICS

OF INNOVATION AND
CONSUMERS

Essential idea:
Innovations take time to diffuse into a target
audience.

Diffusion

The key elements in diffusion research are:

Innovation
Adopters
Communication channels
Time
Social system

Characteristics of Innovation

Potential adopters evaluate an innovation on its:

relative advantage over current state of the art,
its compatibility with the pre-existing system,
its complexity or difficulty to learn,
its trialability or testability,
its potential for reinvention
its observed effects,

These qualities interact and are judged as a whole.

Characteristics of individual
adopters

Individual personality traits have been explored for

their impacts on adoption, but with little agreement.

Ability and motivation have a large impact on a

potential adopter's likelihood to a

Likely adopters make the adjustments needed to

adopt an innovate

Innovations can have symbolic value that encourage

(or discourage) adoption

People who frequent metropolitan areas are more

likely to adopt an innovation

Characteristics of
organizations

Organizations face more complex adoption

possibilities because organizations are both the
aggregate of its individuals and its own system with a
set of procedures and norms.

tension for change (motivation and ability),

innovation-system fit (compatibility), and

assessment of implications (observability).

Innovations that match the organization's pre-existing

system require fewer coincidental changes and are
easy to assess are more likely to be adopted.

Innovations that are intentionally spread, including by

political mandate or directive, are also likely to diffuse
quickly.

Diffusion occurs through a five

step decision-making process

Knowledge

The individual is first exposed to an innovation, but

lacks information about the innovation.

During this stage the individual has not yet been

inspired to find out more information about the
innovation.

Persuasion

The individual is interested in the innovation and

actively seeks related information/details

Decision

The individual takes the concept of the change and

weighs the advantages/disadvantages of using the
innovation and decides whether to adopt or reject the
innovation.

Due to the individualistic nature of this stage, Rogers

notes that it is the most difficult stage on which to
acquire empirical evidence

Two factors determine what type a particular decision

is:
Whether the decision is made freely and
implemented voluntarily
Type
Definition
Who makes the decision

made by an individual who is

BasedInnovation-Decision
on these considerations,
three
of
Optional
in some
way types
distinguished
innovation-decisions have from
beenothers.
identified

Collective Innovation-Decision

made collectively by all

participants.
made for the entire social

Implementation

The individual employs the innovation to a varying

degree depending on the situation.
During this stage the individual also determines the
usefulness of the innovation and may search for
further information about it.

Confirmation

The individual finalizes his/her decision to continue

using the innovation.
This stage is both intrapersonal (may cause cognitive
dissonance) and interpersonal, confirmation the group
has made the right decision.

Rate of adoption

The rate of adoption is defined as the relative speed

at which participants adopt an innovation.
Rate is usually measured by the length of time
required for a certain percentage of the members of a
social system to adopt an innovation
Within the adoption curve at some point the
innovation reaches critical mass.
This is when the number of individual adopters
ensures that the innovation is self-sustaining.

Relative percentage of customers

Early
adopters,
visionaries

Innovator
s,
technolog
y
enthusias
ts
Customers
want
technology and
performance

T
h
e
C
h
a
s
m

Early
Late
majority
majority
pragmatis
conservativ
ts
es

Laggards
, skeptics

Time
x

Customers
want solutions
and
convenience

The product diffusion

curve
The product Diffusion Curve is a useful model that helps
identify who should be targeting at different stages of the
life of a product or service.

The Product Diffusion Curve model uses a bell-shaped

curve or an s-shaped curve to show the stages in which a
successful product is adopted by people within a market.

People within the market are represented depending on

how quickly they accept and purchase new products.

Some welcome novelty, adopting new products as soon

as they come to market.

Others only purchase new products when it becomes the

last resort.

According to the model, five different groups of people

will purchase a product at different stages of the
product's life.

http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMC_93.htm

Innovators

This group include in-the-know consumers who are

willing to take a risk on a new product.

lnnovators either have a pressing need, or are

wealthy enough not to worry too much if the product
doesn't work.

They'll most likely be knowledgeable and selfconfident and (if they're to be influential) may be
people that others look up to.

Early adopters
This group gauge the
response of the lnnovators
before rushing in purchasing
a new product.
They'll probably be educated
and somewhat product savvy.

Early majority

This group are more cautious and prefer to avoid the

risk associated with purchasing an unproven product.

Generally, members of the Early Majority group

accept a product only after it has been approved by
members of the Early Adopters group, waiting for the
recommendations or product endorsements from
those who have experience with the product.

Late Majority

This group are more skeptical.

They are late to jump on board and do so only after a

new product becomes mainstream.

Laggards

This group are more than simply skeptical.

ln fact, they generally do not accept a new product

until more traditional alternatives no longer are
available.

Diffusion vs adoption

Adoption is an individual process detailing the series

of stages one undergoes from first hearing about a
product to finally adopting it.

Diffusion signifies a group phenomena, which

suggests how an innovation spreads.

The role of social systems

Opinion leaders

Electronic communication social networks

Organizations

Consequences of adoption

Both positive and negative outcomes are possible

when an individual or organization chooses to adopt a
particular innovation.

Rogers lists three categories for consequences:

desirable vs. undesirable,
direct vs. indirect,
anticipated vs. unanticipated.

In contrast Wejnert details two categories:

public vs. private
benefits vs. costs

International mindedness

The origin of Rogers theory in one or two areas may

lead to inappropriate application on a global basis.
Positive and negative aspects may be opposite in
different regions/countries.

Theory of Knowledge

Design takes into account cultural differences. Are

other areas of knowledge universal or culture
specific?

5.7 INNOVATION, DESIGN

AND MARKETING
SPECIFICATIONS

Essential idea:
Successful innovations typically start with
detailed design and marketing specifications.

Internal Assessment
Assignment
4 specification, which
Develops a marketing

justifies the requirements

Marketing specifications relate to market and user
characteristics of the proposed design.
Target marketConsideration only needs to be given
to market sectors and segments.
Target audienceDifferentiate between the target
market and the target audience. Characteristics of the
users should be established.
Market analysisA summary is required of the
important information gathered about potential users
and the market. An appraisal of economic viability of
the proposed design from a market perspective is
important taking into account fixed and variable costs
and pricing.

Internal Assessment
Assignment
4
User needSpecifications
should identify the

essential requirements that the product must satisfy

in relation to market and user need.
CompetitionA thorough analysis of competing
designs is required to establish the market need.
The marketing specification must be developed from
the design brief and research.
The evidence for achievement against this strand
should be presented in approximately 300-500 words

Internal Assessment
Assignment
5 specification, which justifies
Develops a design

the requirements
A design specification details:
aesthetic requirements
cost constraints
customer requirements
environmental requirements
size constraints
safety considerations
performance requirements and constraints
materials and manufacturing requirements
All of the requirements, constraints and
considerations must be specific, feasible and
measureable.
The design specification must be developed from the
design brief and research.

Marketing specifications

Designers must establish clear parameters for a

marketing specification in order to create unique and
creative solutions to a problem.
Designers need to collect valid and useful data from
the target market and audience throughout the
design cycle to ensure the specification includes
certain essential components.

Target markets

Definition: A specific group of consumers at which a

company aims its products and services.

Your target customers are those who are most likely

to buy from you. Resist the temptation to be too
general in the hopes of getting a larger slice of the
market.

Try to describe them with as much detail as you can,

based on your knowledge of your product or service.

Target markets

Here are some questions to get you started:

Are your target customers male or female?

How old are they?

Where do they live? Is geography a limiting factor for any

reason?

What do they do for a living?

How much money do they make? This is most significant if

you're selling relatively expensive or luxury items. Most people
can afford a carob bar. You can't say the same of custom
murals.

What other aspects of their lives matter? If you're launching a

roof-tiling service, your target customers probably own their
homes.

You have to decide whether to market to socioeconomic status

or to gender or to region or to lifestyle or to technological
sophistication.

Generational and Cohort

Marketing

Generational marketing, which defines consumers not just

by age, but also by social, economic, demographic and
psychological factors, has been used since the early 80s
to give a more accurate picture of the target consumer.

Generational marketing, which defines consumers not just

by age, but also by social, economic, demographic and
psychological factors, has been used since the early 80s
to give a more accurate picture of the target consumer.

Today's consumers are more marketing-savvy than ever

before and don't like to be "lumped" with others--so be
sure you understand your target market. While
pinpointing your market so narrowly takes a little extra
effort, entrepreneurs who aim at a small target are far
more likely to make a direct hit.

Target audiences

A target audience is the intended audience or

readership of a publication, advertisement, or other
message. In marketing and advertising, it is a specific
group of people within the target market at which a
product or the marketing message of a product is
aimed

For example, if a company sells new diet programs for

men with heart disease (target market), the
communication may be aimed at those men but also
perhaps at their spouses (target audience). Targeted
marketing and targeted advertising strive for
narrowcasting rather than broadcasting

Market analysis

A market analysis studies the attractiveness and

the dynamics of a special market within a special
industry.

Through all of these analyses the strengths,

weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) of a
company can be identified.

Finally, with the help of a SWOT analysis, adequate

business strategies of a company will be defined.

Dimensions of Market analysis

David A. Aaker outlined the following dimensions of a

market analysis:
Market size (current and future)
Market trends
Market growth rate
Market profitability
Industry cost structure
Distribution channels
Key success factors and details
The goal of a market analysis is to determine the
attractiveness of a market, both now and in the future.
Organizations evaluate the future attractiveness of a
market by gaining an understanding of evolving
opportunities and threats as they relate to that
organization's own strengths and weaknesses.

Market size

The following are examples of information sources for

determining market size:

Government data

Trade association data

Financial data from major players

Customer surveys

Market trends

Market trends are the upward or downward

movement of a market, during a period of time. The
market size is more difficult to estimate if one is
starting with something completely new. In this case,
you will have to derive the figures from the number of
potential customers, or customer segments.
Besides information about the target market, one also
needs information about one's competitors,
customers, products, etc.
Lastly, you need to measure marketing effectiveness.
A few techniques are:
Customer analysis
Choice modelling
Competitor analysis
Risk analysis
Product research
Advertising the research

Market growth rate

A

simple means of forecasting the market growth rate is to

extrapolate historical data into the future. While this
method may provide a first-order estimate, it does not
predict important turning points. A better method is to
study market trends and sales growth in complementary
products. Such drivers serve as leading indicators that are
more accurate than simply extrapolating historical data.
Important inflection points in the market growth rate
sometimes can be predicted by constructing a product
diffusion curve. The shape of the curve can be estimated by
studying the characteristics of the adoption rate of a similar
product in the past.
Ultimately, many markets mature and decline. Some
leading indicators of a market's decline include market
saturation, the emergence of substitute products, and/or
the absence of growth drivers.

Market opportunity

A market opportunity product or a service, based on

either one technology or several, fulfills the need(s) of
a (preferably increasing) market better than the
competition and better than substitution-technologies
within the given environmental frame (e.g. society,
politics, legislation, etc.).

Market profitability

While different organizations in a market will have

different levels of profitability, they are all similar to
different market conditions. Michael Porter devised a
useful framework for evaluating the attractiveness of
an industry or market. This framework, known as
Porter five forces analysis, identifies five factors that
influence the market profitability:

Buyer power

Supplier power

Barriers to entry

Threat of substitute products

Rivalry among firms in the industry

Industry cost structure

The cost structure is important for identifying key

factors for success. To this end, Porter's value chain
model is useful for determining where value is added
and for isolating the costs.

The cost structure also is helpful for formulating

strategies to develop a competitive advantage. For
example, in some environments the experience curve
effect can be used to develop a cost advantage over
competitors.

Distribution channels

Examining the following aspects of the distribution

system may help with a market analysis:

Existing distribution channels - can be described by

how direct they are to the customer.

Trends and emerging channels - new channels can

offer the opportunity to develop a competitive
advantage.

Channel power structure - for example, in the case of

a product having little brand equity, retailers have
negotiating power over manufacturers and can
capture more margin.

Success factors
The

key success factors are those elements that

are necessary in order for the firm to achieve its
marketing objectives. A few examples of such
factors include:
Access to essential unique resources
Ability to achieve economies of scale
Access to distribution channels
Technological progress
It is important to consider that key success
factors may change over time, especially as the
product progresses through its life cycle

User need

Needs analysis focuses on the requirements related

to the goals, aspirations and needs of the users
and/or the user community.

The main purpose of needs analysis is the user's

satisfaction.

Competition
Three

levels of economic competition have been classified:

The most narrow form is direct competition (also called category
competition or brand competition), where products which perform
the same function compete against each other. For example, one
brand of pick-up trucks competes with several other brands of pickup trucks. Sometimes, two companies are rivals and one adds new
products to their line, which leads to the other company distributing
the same new things, and in this manner they compete.
The next form is substitute or indirect competition, where
products which are close substitutes for one another compete. For
example, butter competes with margarine, mayonnaise and other
various sauces and spreads.
The broadest form of competition is typically called budget
competition. Included in this category is anything on which the
consumer might want to spend their available money. For example,
a family which has $20,000 available may choose to spend it on
many different items, which can all be seen as competing with each
other for the family's expenditure. This form of competition is also
sometimes described as a competition of "share of wallet".

Market Research

Market research is any organized effort to gather

information about target markets or customers.

Design specifications
A

product design specification (PDS) is a statement of what a

not-yet-designed product is intended to do. Its aim is to ensure
that the subsequent design and development of a product meets
the needs of the user. Product design specification is one of the
elements of product lifecycle management.
The PDS evolves from the design brief. While the design brief
outlines the design goal and major constraints and
considerations, the PDS goes further to determine the precise
limits for the full set of requirements in the product being
designed
The PDS is a specification of what is required but not the
specification of the product itself. Describing the actual product
is done in the technical specification, once the product has been
designed. The difference is important since describing the
product itself at the stage of creating a PDS, effectively
constrains the range of alternatives that are considered during
the design process.
The distinction can be seen as the difference between "What
does the product do?" and "How will the product do it?

International mindedness

The characteristics of users in different

countries/regions need to be taken into account.
Cultural differences may play a major role.

Theory of Knowledge

Design is evidence-based. How do other areas of

knowledge value the importance of evidence?