The Endocrine System:

Did you know…

• adrenal glands produce
the greatest number of
hormones
• smallest endocrine
gland = parathyroid
• largest pure endocrine
gland = thyroid
• endocrine gland
proportionately largest
at birth = thymus
 What are hormones?
• Hormon = “to excite”
– “troph” = to nourish,
grow, change
• Chemical messengers
• Target most cells in the
body
– Note: endocrine system
is not continuous
• Endocrine glands
produce
– Vs. exocrine glands
– Parenchyma (function)
vs. stroma (form)
 What do they do?
• Alter activity
(metabolism) of target cell
• Alter PM permeability or
voltage
• Stimulates production of
proteins/enzymes
• Activates/deactivates
enzymes
• Stimulates mitosis
• Induces secretory activity
 How does the endocrine sys.
compare to the nervous sys.?
• Slow messages
• Prolonged,
continued response
• Via blood
• Can continue to
adapt/respond to
conditions for day or
even weeks
• Often general,
widespread effects
on many organs
What are the types of
hormones?
• Eicosanoids
(paracrines)
• Monoamines
• Steroids
• Peptides
 What are the types of hormones?

• Eicosanoids
(paracrines)
– More localized,
lipids
– Not true hormones
– Leukotrines
(inflammation)
– Prostaglandins
• Inc. bp, dec. uterine
contractions,
enhance clotting, etc.
 What are the types
of hormones?
• Biogenic amines
– AKA monoamines
– From tyrosine (except
melatonin from
tryptophan)
– Includes some
neurotransmitters
• NE, epinephrine,
dopamine
(catecholamines)
– NE from SNS, E from
adrenal medulla
– Also thyroid hormones
(TH)
 What are the types
of hormones?
• Steroids
– From cholesterol: lipid sol.
– Sex steroids
– Corticosteroids (cortisol,
aldosterone, etc.)
• Passes through PM
– travel to cell via transport
protein
• proteins extend half-life
– Bind to DNA receptor in
nucleus
• Activates transcription
• 3 binding sites on DNA
receptor molecule
– Hormone
– Chromatin acceptor site
– DNA activation site
– lipid-soluble hormone animat
ion
What are the types
of hormones?
• Peptides
– 3 to 200 aa’s
• ADH, oxytocin
– All releasing/inhibiting
from hypothalamus
• Most from anterior
pituitary
– Bind to PM receptor
• Can’t pass through PM
• Act through secondary
messengers
– peptide hormone activity
 How do secondary messengers
work again?
• cAMP
– Hormone binds to G
protein
– Activates adenylate
cyclase
• causes cAMP production
– cAMP
activates/deactivates
kinases
• By contrast: T3, T4 (direct cell
entry, no secondary messenger)
– binds to:
• mitochondria
– Stimulates oxidative
metabolism
• Ribosomes
– Stimulates translation
• Nucleus
– Stimulates transcription
– Na+-K+ pump controlled this
way
What are the mechanisms of hormonal action?

• Only cells w/
appropriate
receptors
respond to
hormone
– These are target
cells
– Receptors on
PM, nucleus,
mitochondria,
other organelles
What are the mechanisms
of hormonal action?
• Receptors
– Specificity
– Saturation
– Amplification
– Up-regulation
• More receptors
• Greater sensitivity
• Oxytocin receptors in late
pregnancy
– Down-regulation
• Fewer receptors
• Response to high concentrations
• Adipocytes & insulin
 How do hormones interact with
each other?
• Synergistic effects • Antagonistic effects
– Greater than sum – Opposing actions
– FSH + testosterone =
– Insulin vs. glucagon
adequate sperm
production – Estrogen vs.
• Permissive effects prolactin
– Hormone enhances
target’s response to
second hormone
• Estrogen stimulates up
regulation of
progesterone receptors
 What is the pituitary gland?
• Hypothalamus secretes:
releasing/inhibiting hormones
• Hypophysis = _______________
• No nerve connection to
adenohypophysis (anterior
__________)
• Releasing and inhibiting
hormones sent via blood
• hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal
system
What is the hypothalamus-hypophysis axis?
• Better question:
• What IS an axis?

• Let’s look at the portal

system…
What is the hypothalamus-hypophysis axis?
What is the hypothalamus-hypophysis axis?

• Neurohypophysis—
not a true gland
(posterior
_________)
• Mass of axons from
hypothalamus
• Hypothalamo-
hypophyseal
tract
• Hormones
stored in
neurohypophysi
s
• Oxytocin
• ADH
• Nerve signal
stimulates
release
 Anterior pituitary hormones
Hormone Target cell(s) Action
Follicle-stimulating Ovaries, testes Stim egg dev.
hormone (FSH) (A gonadotropin) Stim. Sperm prod.
Luteinizing hormone Ovaries, testes Stim. Egg release & corpus
(LH) (a gonadotropin) luteum to release progesterone
Peak at mid-menstrual Stim. Interstitial testicular
cycle cells to release testosterone

Thyroid-stimulating Thyroid gland Stim. thyroid growth and

hormone (TSH) hormone secretion
(metabolism)
Adrenocorticotropic Adrenal cortex Reg. Stress response
hormone (ACTH) Pancreas (insulin Stim. Ad. cortex to secrete
release) glucocorticoids (glucose, fat
and protein metabolism)
 Anterior pituitary hormones
Hormone Target cell(s) Action
Prolactin (PRL) Mammary Stim. milk synthesis after birth
glands Sensitizes testes to testosterone
Testes (permissive)

Growth Hormone Many Stim. Hyperplasia (growth by

(GH) or Esp. liver mitosis) and hypertrophy (growth by
Somatotropin Secreted mainly increase in cell size) of tissues
at night Increases fatty acid metabolism,
decreases muscle uptake of glucose
Liver: stim. Somatomedins
production (insulin-like growth
factors, IGF); this stim. fat, cartilage,
bone, tissue
Bone growth at epiphyseal plates
What does the posterior pituitary secrete?
• ADH--antidiuretic hormone
– AKA vasopressin
• Causes vasoconstriction at very
high levels
– Inc. water retention (lower urine vol.)
– Prevent dehydration
• Oxytocin
– Stims uterine contractions
– Stims milk secretion after birth
• Nerve system stimulation controls
both
– Nursing stimulus
– Osmoreceptors in blood vessels detect
inc. osmolarity and stim. ADH
– Stretching of baroreceptors inhibits
ADH
 How do negative feedback loops
control secretion?
• Products from target organs
often inhibit further secretion
of hormone
• Example:
– Dehydration lowers blood
volume and pressure
– Osmoreceptors detect
– Stimulates hypothalamus to
secrete ADH via posterior
pituitary
– Blood volume/pressure
increases
– Osmoreceptors detect
– Inhibit further ADH release
• Another example: thyroid
hormone (see p. 645 (new)
(646, old) if you’re interested)
 What are some pituitary disorders?
• In juveniles
– Hyposecretion
(hypopituitarism)
• Pituitary dwarfism
– Hypersecretion: gigantism
• In adults
– Hypersecretion:
acromegaly
• Posterior lobe
hyposecretion: diabetes
insipidus (which is:
___________)
– WHY?
What is the pineal
gland?
• Roof of third
ventricle
• Produces serotonin
– Converted to
melatonin
– Possible sexual
maturation control
• Prevent early
maturation?
 What is the thymus?
• Location: mediastinum
• Involution after
puberty (shrinks like
pineal)
• Secretes thymopoietin
– Regulates development
of T-lymphocytes
 What is the thyroid?
• Largest endocrine gland
– Wraps around trachea
• Contains
– Sacs: thyroid follicles
• Lined with follicular cells which secrete T 3 and T4
• Increases BMR, HR and heart contraction
– C cells
• Produce calcitonin
– Stores calcium by stimulating osteoblasts, inhibiting osteoclasts
• Antagonistic to parathyroid hormone (PTH)
• Regulation via the hypothalamo-hypophyseal-thyroid axis
 What are some thyroid diseases?
• Hyposecretion
– Congenital
hypothyroidism
• facial
thickening, low
body temp,
lethargy, brain
damage
– Adults:
myxedema
• Low BMR,
sluggish, sleepy,
weight gain,
cold, tissue
swelling
From: http://www.type2hypothyroidism.com/Type1VsType2.html
 What is goiter?
• Another thyroid disorder; two types
• Endemic goiter: dietary deficiency of
iodine
– No TH produced so pituitary receives no
neg. feedback and more more TSH
produced
– Results in hypertrophy
• Toxic goiter (Grave’s disease)
– Autoimmune disease
– Abnormal antibodies mimic TSH, raising
TH levels
• Called thyroid-stimulating
immunoglobin
– Causes high BMR & HR, sleeplessness,
weight loss, exophthalmos
From: http://www.medstudents.com.br/image/endoc/imgend1.htm
 What are the parathyroids?
• PTH: stim’s osteoclasts,
inhibits osteoblasts
– Calcium released
• Hypoparathyroidism
– If parathyroid removed:
• Decreased calcium levels
• tetany and death without HRT
• Hyperparathyroidism:
– Bone softening, fragility,
deformity
– Renal calculi formation
 What are the adrenal glands?
• Adrenal medulla
– Sympathetic
neurons innervate
– Secrete
catecholamines
• Adrenal cortex
– Makes more than 25
corticoids (AKA
corticosteroids)
– Small amounts of
sex steroids
(androgen/estrogen)
• Including DHEA
(an androgen)
which is converted
to testosterone
 What are the adrenal glands?
– Mineralcorticoids
• Mostly aldosterone
(retain Na+, secrete K+)
– Glucocorticoids
• Secreted in response to
ACTH
• Cortisol
(hydrocortisone) is
most important
– Stimulate
gluconeogenesis (fat
and protein
catabolism)
– Also glycolysis
– Stress response
– Suppresses immune
system
 What are some adrenal
disorders?
• Regulated by hypothalamo-hypophyseal-adrenocortico
axis
• Cushing syndrome
– Via adrenal tumor or ACTH excess
• Hyperglycemia, hypertension, muscular weakness, edema, “moon
face”, “buffalo hump”
 What are some adrenal disorders?

• Addison disease
– Hyposecretion of
glucocorticoids and
mineralcorticoids
• Hypoglycemia, Na/K
imbalance, loss of stress
resistance, hypotension,
• Via excess ACTH
secretion (b/c no neg.
feedback)
• Bronzing b.c ACTH
stimulates melanin
production
• Fatal if not treated with
corticoids
From: http://www.historyplace.com/specials/portraits/presidents/
 What does the pancreas secrete?
• Mostly exocrine digestive tissue
• Some endocrine tissue in pancreatic islets
– Islets of Langerhans
 What does the pancreas secrete?
• These secrete:
– Insulin via beta cells
• A peptide hormone
• Stimulates glycogenesis and inhibits
glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis
• Recruits glucose transporter proteins
(GLUTs)
– Glucagon via alpha cells
• Stimulates gylcogenolysis (glycogen
hydrolysis)
– Somatostatin (GHIH) via delta cells
• Paracrine secretion
• Modulates beta and alpha cell secretions
 What are some pancreatic
disorders?
• Hyperinsulinism
– Sometimes pancreatic tumor causes
– Sometimes accidental over-injection
– Causes hypoglycemia, weakness, hunger,
• Hypoglycemia stimulates E, glucagon, GH
secretion
– Anxiety, hi HR, sweating
– Insulin shock—brain deprived of glucose
» Disorientation, convulsions, unconsciousness
 What are some pancreatic
disorders?
• Diabetes mellitus (DM)
– Diabetes = “to syphon or
run through
• Mellitus = “sweet”;
insipidus = “tasteless”
– Hyposecretion or inaction
of insulin
– Three signs:
• Polyuria (excessive urine
output)
• Polydipsia (intense thirst)
• Polyphagia (intense
hunger)
– Tests reveal hyperglycemia,
glycosuria, ketonuria From: http://www.bbc.co.uk/health/conditions/urinarytract2.shtml
 What types of DM can patients
have?
• Type I—insulin-dependent
(IDDM)
– 10% of cases
– Autoimmune destruction of
beta cells
– AKA juvenile diabetes (age 12)
• Type II—non-insulin
dependent (NIDDM)
– Insulin resistance
• Adipocytes secrete resistin?
• Shortage of insulin receptors?
• Heredity, age, obesity
• AKA adult onset (age 40)
 What do the gonads secrete?

• Exocrine products:
egg and sperm
• Endocrine products:
gonadal hormones
• We’ll cover this more
at the end of the
semester
 What is stress and how do we
adapt to it?
• Any stimulus that upset homeostasis
– Body copes via stress response (AKA general
adaptation syndrome, GAS)
• Alarm reaction
– NE from sympathetic, E from adrenals = Fight or
flight
What is stress and how do we adapt
to it?
• Stage of resistance
– If stress continues, glycogen reserves drop
– Cortisol dominates to provide fuels for metabolism
• Long-term cortisol exposure suppresses immune system
• Stage of exhaustion
– Fat reserves exhausted, rely on protein
• Body wasting and weakening
– Rapid decline and death: heart/kidney failure,
infection