APAKAH BENTUK ATOM

SEPERTI.............

V.Montgomery & R.Smith

ATOMS = BUILDING
BLOCKS

SMALLER THAN ATOMS?

V.Montgomery & R.Smith

KOMPONEN ATOM

V.Montgomery & R.S

Struktur atom ?

V.Montgomery & R.S

Atau
Hydrogen 1 (hydrogen)

V.Montgomery & R.S

Anatomy of the Atom

By Roberta C. Barbalace
Atomic Number
Atomic Mass
Atomic Mass = # Protons + #
Neutrons
The atomic mass of carbon = 12
The atomic # of carbon = 6 = the # of
protons
# neutrons = Atomic Mass - # protons
# neutrons =12 - 6 = 6
V.Montgomery & R.S

The Variability in the Number of

Neutrons In Each Element
(Nuclides
/ Isotopes)
While the number of protons and electrons remain

constant in the neutral atom, the number of

neutrons may vary within different atom species of
the same element. As a result, the atomic mass for
one atom may be different from another atom of
the same element if the number of neutrons
varies. Atomic mass must account for all possible
species or nuclides (isotopes), of an atom. Carbon
12 with its 6 neutrons is by far the most common
isotope of carbon. In reality, there is a carbon 14
which has eight neutrons and an atomic mass of
14. There is also a carbon 11 which has only five
neutrons.

V.Montgomery & R.S

The Atomic Mass Average

This is the sum of all nuclide
(isotope), masses multiplied by
their natural abundance. This
weighted average is the relative
mass listed in the Periodic Table.
The relative percentage of each
nuclide (isotope), appears to be
similar throughout the world.
V.Montgomery & R.S

The Charge of an Atom

Since the number of protons (positive charges) always
equals the number of electrons (negative charges) in an
atom, positive charges equal negative charges and atoms
in the elemental state have no charge. Only when an atom
takes an electron from another atom does the particle
become charged. This charged form of the atom is known
as an ion. Positively charged ions are called cations, and
negatively charged ions are called anions. For instance,
when chlorine accepts an electron from sodium, the sodium
ion that is formed will have one more proton than electrons.
It will therefore have a positive charge and be called a
cation. The chlorine (or chloride) ion will have one more
electron than protons. It will take on a negative charge and
be called an anion. The compound formed by this transfer
of electrons is sodium chloride or table salt, which is
nothing like the highly reactive sodium or extremely
poisonous chlorine from which it was formed.

V.Montgomery & R.S

Energy Levels
Electron Energy Levels Energy
Level 2n2 Possible # of electrons
1 2(12)2
2 2(22)8
3 2(32)18
4 2(42)32
5 2(52)50 (theoretical, not filled)
6 2(62)72 (theoretical, not filled)
7 2(72)98 (theoretical, not filled)
V.Montgomery & R.S

10

V.Montgomery & R.S

11

Energy Sublevels
(Orbitals)

Energy Sublevels (Orbitals)

Principal #Sublevel#, Sublevel
Quantum
Letter
1 0
s
2 0,1 s, p
3 0,1,2 s, p, d
4 0,1,2,3
s, p, d, f
5 0,1,2,3
s, p, d, f
6 0,1,2,3
s, p, d
7 0
s As more elements are identified,
the sublevels of 5,6 and 7 will fill.

V.Montgomery & R.S

12

Periodic Table of the

Elements

V.Montgomery & R.S

13

Atomic Structure
From Indivisible to Quantum
Mechanical Model of the Atom

V.Montgomery & R.S

14

Classical Model
Democritus
Dalton
Thomson
Rutherford

V.Montgomery & R.S

15

Democritus
Circa 400 BC
Greek philosopher
Suggested that all matter is
composed of tiny, indivisible
particles, called atoms

V.Montgomery & R.S

16

Daltons Atomic Theory

1. All matter is made of tiny indivisible
(1808)
particles called atoms.
2. Atoms of the same element are identical.

The atoms of any one element are different

from those of any other element.
3. Atoms of different elements can combine
with one another in simple whole number
ratios to form compounds.
4. Chemical reactions occur when atoms are
separated, joined, or rearranged;however,
atoms of one element are not changed into
atoms of another by a chemical reaction.
V.Montgomery & R.S

17

J.J. Thomson (1897)

Determined the charge to mass
ratio for electrons
Applied electric and magnetic
fields to cathode rays
Plum pudding model of the atom

V.Montgomery & R.S

18

Rutherfords Gold Foil

Experiment (1910)
Alpha particles (positively charged
helium ions) from a radioactive
source was directed toward a very
thin gold foil.
A fluorescent screen was placed
behind the Au foil to detect the
scattering of alpha () particles.
V.Montgomery & R.S

19

V.Montgomery & R.S

20

Rutherfords Gold Foil

Experiment (Observations)
Most of the -particles passed
through the foil.
Many of the -particles deflected
at various angles.
Surprisingly, a few particles were
deflected back from the Au foil.

V.Montgomery & R.S

21

Rutherfords Gold Foil

Experiment (Conclusions)
Rutherford concluded that most of
the mass of an atom is
concentrated in a core, called the
atomic nucleus.
The nucleus is positively charged.
Most of the volume of the atom is
empty space.
V.Montgomery & R.S

22

Shortfalls of Rutherfords
Model
Did not explain where the atoms
negatively charged electrons are located
in the space surrounding its positively
charged nucleus.
We know oppositely charged particles
attract each other
What prevents the negative electrons
from being drawn into the positive
nucleus?
V.Montgomery & R.S

23

Bohr Model (1913)

Niels Bohr (1885-1962), Danish
scientist working with Rutherford
Proposed that electrons must have
enough energy to keep them in
constant motion around the nucleus
Analogous to the motion of the
planets orbiting the sun
V.Montgomery & R.S

24

Planetary Model
The planets are attracted to the
sun by gravitational force, they
move with enough energy to
remain in stable orbits around the
sun.
Electrons have energy of motion
that enables them to overcome the
attraction for the positive nucleus
V.Montgomery & R.S

25

Think about satellites.

We launch a satellite into space
with enough energy to orbit the
earth
The amount of energy it is given,
determines how high it will orbit
We use energy from a rocket to
boost our satellite, what energy do
we give electrons to boost them?
V.Montgomery & R.S

26

Electronic Structure of
Atom
Waves-particle duality
Photoelectric effect
Plancks constant
Bohr model
de Broglie equation

V.Montgomery & R.S

27

Radiant Energy
Radiation the emission of energy
in various forms
A.K.A. Electromagnetic Radiation
Radiant Energy travels in the form
of waves that have both electrical
and magnetic impulses

V.Montgomery & R.S

28

Electromagnetic Radiation radiation

that consists of wave-like electric and
magnetic fields in space, including
light, microwaves, radio signals, and xrays
Electromagnetic waves can travel
through empty space, at the speed of
light (c=3.00x108m/s) or about
300million m/s!!!
V.Montgomery & R.S

29

Waves
Waves transfer energy from one place
to another
Think about the damage done by waves during strong hurricanes.
Think about placing a tennis ball in your bath tub, if you create
waves at one it, that energy is transferred to the ball at the other
= bobbing

Electromagnetic waves have the

same characteristics as other waves

V.Montgomery & R.S

30

Wave Characteristics

Wavelength, (lambda) distance between

successive points
2
m

10
m

V.Montgomery & R.S

31

Wave Characteristics
Frequency, (nu) the number of
complete wave cycles to pass a
given point per unit of time; Cycles
per second
t=0

t=5

t=0

V.Montgomery & R.S

t=5

32

Units for Frequency

1/s
s-1
hertz, Hz
Because all electromagnetic waves
travel at the speed of light, wavelength
is determined by frequency
Low frequency = long wavelengths
High frequency = short wavelengths
V.Montgomery & R.S

33

Waves
Amplitude maximum height of a
wave

V.Montgomery & R.S

34

Waves
Node points of zero amplitude

V.Montgomery & R.S

35

Electromagnetic Spectrum
Radio & TV, microwaves, UV,
infrared, visible light = all are
examples of electromagnetic
radiation (and radiant energy)
Electromagnetic spectrum: entire
range of electromagnetic radiation

V.Montgomery & R.S

36

Electromagnetic Spectrum
1024

1020

Gamma

10-16

1018 1016 1014

Xrays

10-9

10-8

UV

1012

IR

10-6

1010

Frequency
Hz
108 106

Microwaves FM AM

10-3

100

2
10Wavelength
m

Visible Light

V.Montgomery & R.S

37

Notes
Higher-frequency electromagnetic
waves have higher energy than lowerfrequency electromagnetic waves
All forms of electromagnetic energy
interact with matter, and the ability of
these different waves to penetrate
matter is a measure of the energy of
the waves
V.Montgomery & R.S

38

What is your favorite radio

station?
Radio stations are identified by
their frequency in MHz.
We know all electromagnetic
radiation(which includes radio
waves) travel at the speed of light.
What is the wavelength of your
favorite station?
V.Montgomery & R.S

39

Velocity of a Wave
Velocity of a wave (m/s) =
wavelength (m) x frequency (1/s)
c =
c= speed of light = 3.00x108 m/s
My favorite radio station is 105.9
Jamming Oldies!!!
What is the wavelength of this FM
station?
V.Montgomery & R.S

40

Wavelength of FM
c =
c= speed of light = 3.00x108 m/s
= 105.9MHz or 1.059x108Hz
= c/ =3.00x108 m/s = 2.83m
1.059x1081/s

V.Montgomery & R.S

41

What does the electromagnetic

spectrum have to do with
electrons?

Its all related to energy energy

of motion(of electrons) and energy
of light

V.Montgomery & R.S

42

States of Electrons
When current is passed through a gas at
a low pressure, the potential energy
(energy due to position) of some of the
gas atoms increases.
Ground State: the lowest energy state of
an atom
Excited State: a state in which the atom
has a higher potential energy than it
had in its ground state
V.Montgomery & R.S

43

Neon Signs
When an excited atom returns to
its ground state it gives off the
energy it gained in the form of
electromagnetic radiation!
The glow of neon signs,is an
example of this process

V.Montgomery & R.S

44

White Light
White light is composed of all of
the colors of the spectrum = ROY
G BIV
When white light is passed through
a prism, the light is separated into
a spectrum, of all the colors
What are rainbows?
V.Montgomery & R.S

45

Line-emission Spectrum
When an electric current is passed
through a vacuum tube containing
H2 gas at low pressure, and
emission of a pinkish glow is
observed.
What do you think happens when
that pink glow is passed through a
prism?
V.Montgomery & R.S

46

Hydrogens Emission
Spectrum
The pink light consisted of just a few
specific frequencies, not the whole range
of colors as with white light
Scientists had expected to see a
continuous range of frequencies of
electromagnetic radiation, because the
hydrogen atoms were excited by whatever
amount of energy was added to them.
Lead to a new theory of the atom
V.Montgomery & R.S

47

Bohrs Model of Hydrogen

Atom
Hydrogen did not produce a continuous
spectrum
New model was needed:

Electrons can circle the nucleus only in

allowed paths or orbits
When an e- is in one of these orbits, the atom
has a fixed, definite energy
e- and hydrogen atom are in its lowest energy
state when it is in the orbit closest to the
nucleus

V.Montgomery & R.S

48

Bohr Model Continued

Orbits are separated by empty
space, where e- cannot exist
Energy of e- increases as it moves
to orbits farther and farther from
the nucleus
(Similar to a person climbing a
ladder)
V.Montgomery & R.S

49

Bohr Model and Hydrogen

Spectrum
While in orbit, e- can neither gain or
lose energy
But, e- can gain energy equal to the
difference between higher and lower
orbitals, and therefore move to the
higher orbital (Absorption)
When e- falls from higher state to
lower state, energy is emitted
(Emission)
V.Montgomery & R.S

50

Bohrs Calculations
Based on the wavelengths of
hydrogens line-emission
spectrum, Bohr calculated the
energies that an e- would have in
the allowed energy levels for the
hydrogen atom

V.Montgomery & R.S

51

Photoelectric Effect
An observed phenomenon, early 1900s
When light was shone on a metal,
electrons were emitted from that metal
Light was known to be a form of energy,
capable of knocking loose an electron
from a metal
Therefore, light of any frequency could
supply enough energy to eject an
electron.
V.Montgomery & R.S

52

Photoelectric Effect pg. 93

Light strikes the surface of a metal
(cathode), and e- are ejected.
These ejected e- move from the
cathode to the anode, and current flows
in the cell.
A minimum frequency of light is used.
If the frequency is above the minimum
and the intensity of the light is
increased, more e- are ejected.
V.Montgomery & R.S

53

Photoelectric Effect
Observed: For a given metal, no
electrons were emitted if the
lights frequency was below a
certain minimum, no matter how
long the light was shone
Why does the light have to be of a
minimum frequency?
V.Montgomery & R.S

54

Explanation.
Max Planck studied the emission of
light by hot objects
Proposed: objects emit energy in
small, specific amounts = quanta
(Differs from wave theory which would say objects emit
electromagnetic radiation continuously)

Quantum: is the minimum quantity

of energy that can be lost or
gained by an atom.
V.Montgomery & R.S

55

Plancks Equation
E radiation = Plancks constant x
frequency of radiation
E = h
h = Plancks constant = 6.626 x 10 -34
Js
When an object emits radiation, there
must be a minimum quantity of energy
that can be emitted at any given time.

V.Montgomery & R.S

56

Einstein Expands Plancks

Theory
Theorized that electromagnetic
radiation had a dual wave-particle
nature!
Behaves like waves and particles
Think of light as particles that each
carry one quantum of energy =
photons
V.Montgomery & R.S

57

Photons
Photons: a particle of
electromagnetic radiation having
zero mass and carrying a quantum
of energy
Ephoton = h

V.Montgomery & R.S

58

Back to Photoelectric
Effect
Einstein concluded:

Electromagnetic radiation is absorbed

by matter only in whole numbers of
photons
In order for an e- to be ejected, the emust be struck by a single photon
with minimum frequency

V.Montgomery & R.S

59

Example of Plancks
Equation
CD players use lasers that emit red
light with a of 685 nm. Calculate
the energy of one photon.

Different metals require different

minimum frequencies to exhibit
photoelectric effect

V.Montgomery & R.S

60

Answer
Ephoton = h
h = Plancks constant = 6.626 x 10-34 J s
c =
c= speed of light = 3.00x108 m/s
= (3.00x108 m/s)/(6.85x10-7m)
=4.37x10141/s
Ephoton= (6.626 x 10-34 J s)(4.37x10141/s)

Ephoton= 2.90 x 10-19J

V.Montgomery & R.S

61

Wave Nature of Electrons

We know electrons behave as
particles
In 1925, Louis de Broglie
suggested that electrons might
also display wave properties

V.Montgomery & R.S

62

de Broglies Equation
A free e- of mass (m) moving with
a velocity (v) should have an
associated wavelength: = h/mv
Linked particle properties (m and
v) with a wave property ()

V.Montgomery & R.S

63

Example of de Broglies
Equation
Calculate the wavelength
associated with an e- of mass
9.109x10-28 g traveling at 40.0%
the speed of light.
1 J = 1 kg m2/s2

V.Montgomery & R.S

64

Answer
C=(3.00x108m/s)(.40)=1.2x108m/s
= h/mv
= (6.626 x 10-34 J s)
=6.06x1012m
(9.11x10-31kg)(1.2x108m/s)
Remember 1J = 1(kg)(m)2/s2

V.Montgomery & R.S

65

Wave-Particle Duality
de Broglies experiments
suggested that e- has wave-like
properties.
Thomsons experiments suggested
that e- has particle-like properties

measured charge-to-mass ratio

V.Montgomery & R.S

66

Quantum mechanical
model
Schrdinger
Heisenberg
Pauli
Hund

V.Montgomery & R.S

67

Where are the e- in the

atom?
e- have a dual wave-particle nature
If e- act like waves and particles at
the same time, where are they in
the atom?
First consider a theory by German
theoretical physicist, Werner
Heisenberg.
V.Montgomery & R.S

68

Heisenbergs Idea
e- are detected by their interactions
with photons
Photons have about the same energy
as eAny attempt to locate a specific ewith a photon knocks the e- off its
course
ALWAYS a basic uncertainty in trying
to locate an eV.Montgomery & R.S

69

Heisenbergs Uncertainty
Principle
Impossible to determine both the
position and the momentum of an
e- in an atom simultaneously with
great certainty.

V.Montgomery & R.S

70

Schrdingers Wave
Equation
An equation that treated electrons
in atoms as waves
Only waves of specific energies,
and therefore frequencies,
provided solutions to the equation
Quantization of e- energies was a
natural outcome
V.Montgomery & R.S

71

Schrdingers Wave
Equation
Solutions are known as wave
functions
Wave functions give ONLY the
probability of finding and e- at a
given place around the nucleus
e- not in neat orbits, but exist in
regions called orbitals
V.Montgomery & R.S

72

Schrdingers Wave
Equation
Here is the equation
Dont memorize this or write it down
It is a differential equation, and we need
calculus to solve it
-h
(2 )+ (2 )+( 2 ) +V =E
8()2m
(x2)
(y2)
(z2 )
Scary???
V.Montgomery & R.S

73

Definitions
Probability likelihood
Orbital wave function; region in
space where the probability of
finding an electron is high
Schrdingers Wave Equation states
that orbitals have quantized energies
But there are other characteristics to
describe orbitals besides energy
V.Montgomery & R.S

74

Quantum Numbers
Definition: specify the properties of
atomic orbitals and the properties
of electrons in orbitals
There are four quantum numbers
The first three are results from
Schrdingers Wave Equation

V.Montgomery & R.S

75

Quantum Numbers (1)

Principal Quantum Number, n

V.Montgomery & R.S

76

Quantum Numbers
Principal Quantum Number, n

Values of n = 1,2,3,
Positive integers only!
Indicates the main energy level
occupied by the electron

V.Montgomery & R.S

77

Quantum Numbers
Principal Quantum Number, n

Values of n = 1,2,3,
Describes the energy level, orbital
size

V.Montgomery & R.S

78

Quantum Numbers
Principal Quantum Number, n

Values of n = 1,2,3,
Describes the energy level, orbital
size
As n increases, orbital size increases.

V.Montgomery & R.S

79

Principle Quantum
Number
n=6
n=5
n=4
n=3

Energy

n=2

n=1

V.Montgomery & R.S

80

Principle Quantum
Number
More than one e- can have the
same n value
These e- are said to be in the same
e- shell
The total number of orbitals that
exist in a given shell = n2

V.Montgomery & R.S

81

Quantum Numbers (2)

Angular momentum quantum
number, l

V.Montgomery & R.S

82

Quantum Numbers
Angular momentum quantum
number, l
Values of l = n-1, 0

V.Montgomery & R.S

83

Quantum Numbers
Angular momentum quantum
number, l
Values of l = n-1, 0
Describes the orbital shape

V.Montgomery & R.S

84

Quantum Numbers
Angular momentum quantum number, l
Values of l = n-1, 0
Describes the orbital shape
Indicates the number of sublevel
(subshells)
(except for the 1st main energy level,
orbitals of different shapes are known
as sublevels or subshells)
V.Montgomery & R.S

85

Orbital Shapes
For a specific main energy level, the
number of orbital shapes possible is
equal to n.

Values of l = n-1, 0

Ex. Orbital which n=2, can have one of

two shapes corresponding to l = 0 or
l=1

Depending on its value of l, an

orbital is assigned a letter.
V.Montgomery & R.S

86

Orbital Shapes
Angular magnetic quantum
number, l
If l = 0, then the orbital is labeled
s.
s is spherical.

V.Montgomery & R.S

87

Orbital Shapes
If l = 1, then the orbital is labeled
p.
dumbbell shape

V.Montgomery & R.S

88

Orbital Shapes
If l = 2, the orbital is labeled d.
double dumbbell or four-leaf
clover

V.Montgomery & R.S

89

Orbital Shapes
If l = 3, then the orbital is labeled
f.

V.Montgomery & R.S

90

Energy Level and Orbitals

n=1, only s orbitals
n=2, s and p orbitals
n=3, s, p, and d orbitals
n=4, s,p,d and f orbitals
Remember: l = n-1

V.Montgomery & R.S

91

Atomic Orbitals
Atomic Orbitals are designated by
the principal quantum number
followed by letter of their subshell

Ex. 1s = s orbital in 1st main energy

level
Ex. 4d = d sublevel in 4th main energy
level

V.Montgomery & R.S

92

Quantum Numbers (3)

Magnetic Quantum Number, ml

V.Montgomery & R.S

93

Quantum Numbers
Magnetic Quantum Number, ml

Values of ml = +l0-l

V.Montgomery & R.S

94

Quantum Numbers
Magnetic Quantum Number, ml

Values of ml = +l0-l

Describes the orientation of the

orbital
Atomic orbitals can have the same

shape but different orientations

V.Montgomery & R.S

95

Magnetic Quantum
Number
s orbitals are spherical, only one
orientation, so m=0
p orbitals, 3-D orientation, so m=
-1, 0 or 1 (x, y, z)
d orbitals, 5 orientations, m= -2,-1,
0, 1 or 2

V.Montgomery & R.S

96

Quantum Numbers (4)

Electron Spin Quantum Number,ms

V.Montgomery & R.S

97

Quantum Numbers
Electron Spin Quantum Number,ms

Values of ms = +1/2 or 1/2

e- spin in only 1 or 2 directions

A single orbital can hold a maximum
of 2 e-, which must have opposite
spins

V.Montgomery & R.S

98

Electron Configurations
Electron Configurations:
arragenment of e- in an atom
There is a distinct electron
configuration for each atom
There are 3 rules to writing electron
configurations:

V.Montgomery & R.S

99

Pauli Exclusion Principle

No 2 e- in an atom can have the
same set of four quantum numbers
(n, l, ml, ms ). Therefore, no atomic
orbital can contain more than 2 e-.

V.Montgomery & R.S

100

Aufbau Principle
Aufbau Principle: an e- occupies
the lowest energy orbital that can
receive it.
Aufbau order:

V.Montgomery & R.S

101

Hunds Rule
Hunds Rule: orbitals of equal
energy are each occupied by one
e- before any orbital is occupied by
a second e-, and all e- in singly
occupied orbitals must have the
same spin

V.Montgomery & R.S

102

Electron Configuration
The total of the superscripts must
equal the atomic number (number
of electrons) of that atom.
The last symbol listed is the
symbol for the differentiating
electron.

V.Montgomery & R.S

103

Differentiating Electron
The differentiating electron is the electron
that is added which makes the configuration
different from that of the preceding
element.
The last electron.
H 1s1
He 1s2
Li 1s2, 2s1
Be 1s2, 2s2
B 1s2, 2s2, 2p1
V.Montgomery & R.S

104

Orbital Diagrams
These diagrams are based on the
electron configuration.
In orbital diagrams:

Each orbital (the space in an atom

that will hold a pair of electrons) is
shown.
The opposite spins of the electron pair
is indicated.
V.Montgomery & R.S

105

Orbital Diagram Rules

1. Represent each electron by an arrow
2. The direction of the arrow represents

the electron spin

3. Draw an up arrow to show the first
electron in each orbital.
4. Hunds Rule: Distribute the electrons
among the orbitals within sublevels so
as to give the most unshared pairs.
Put one electron in each orbital of a sublevel
before the second electron appears.
Half filled sublevels are more stable than
partially full sublevels.

V.Montgomery & R.S

106

Orbital Diagram Examples

H _
1s

Li _
1s

2s

B __ __
1s

2s

2p

N _
1s

2s

2p

V.Montgomery & R.S

107

Dot Diagram of Valence

Electrons
When two atom collide, and a reaction
takes place, only the outer electrons
interact.
These outer electrons are referred to as
the valence electrons.
Because of the overlaying of the
sublevels in the larger atoms, there are
never more than eight valence
electrons.
V.Montgomery & R.S

108

Rules for Dot Diagrams

..
:Xy:
..
Px orbital

Py orbital

S sublevel
electrons

Pz orbital

V.Montgomery & R.S

109

Rules for Dot Diagrams

Remember: the maximum number
of valence electrons is 8.
Only s and p sublevel electrons will
ever be valence electrons.
Put the dots that represent the s
and p electrons around the symbol.
Use the same rule (Hunds rule) as
you fill the designated orbitals.
V.Montgomery & R.S

110

Examples of Dot Diagrams

H
He
Li
Be
V.Montgomery & R.S

111

Examples of Dot Diagrams

C
N
O
Xe
V.Montgomery & R.S

112

Summary
Both dot diagrams and orbital diagrams will
be use full to use when we begin our study
of atomic bonding.
We have been dealing with valence electrons
since our initial studies of the ions.
The number of valence electrons can be
determined by reading the column number.

Al = 3 valence electrons
Br = 7 valence electrons
All transitions metals have 2 valence electrons.

V.Montgomery & R.S

113