Unit 3

Question 1

What happens when high

speed compressible
flow , flow over a airfoil ?

What we are going to see?

We develop theory
applicable to high
speed subsonic
flight and see how
the theory predicts
a monotonically
increasing drag
going to infinity as
free stream mach
number tends to

What we are going to see?

For 1d flow analysis like normal
shock ,we used simple algebraic
equations
But for 2d oblique shocks we need to
derive governing equations in terms
of partial differential equation.

What we are going to see?

So here all will be discussed in terms
of differential form of momentum,
continuity, and energy equation.

Road map

velocity potential
Avelocity potentialis a
scalarpotentialused
inpotentialflow theory.

SCALAR POTENTIAL
Scalar potential :describes the
situation where the difference in the
potential energies of an object in 2
different positions depend on the
position, not upon the path taken by
the objects in travelling from one
position to other.

OBJECTIVE
So we are going to combine our
governing equations in terms of
velocity potential, similar to Laplace
equations for incompressible flow.

Answer
Laplace equation used in
incompressible equation are linear
and easy to solve and no disturbance
produced in incompressible
So no need of velocity potential
concepts.
But in compressible flow, flow is
completely disturbed.
Thats why we need velocity
potential concept

Linearization
But one problem we have now is,
velocity potential for compressible
flow is non linear
So we need to ,linearize this equation
and apply to apply to thin airfoil at
small angle of attack
This will allow us to correct the
incompressible airfoil data for the
effect of compressibility so called
compressibility corrections .

Velocity potential equations

The in viscid , compressible ,
subsonic flow over a body immersed
in a uniform stream is ir rotational
There is no mechanism such as flow
to start rotating the fluid element .so
velocity potential can be used

Velocity Potential

Velocity Potential is defined as a scalar function of

space and time such that its negative derivative
with respect to any direction gives the fluid
velocity in that direction.
Properties of a velocity potential function
1. If velocity potential exists, the flow should be
irrotational
2. If velocity potential satisfies the Laplace
equation, it represents the possible steady,
incompressible, irrotational flow.

Why potential , why not

vector(mountain eg )
If you have an irrotational flow, then you can
prove that there is something called a velocity
potential for that flow. This means is that,
rather than specifying the speed and velocity
at each point (a bunch of vectors) you can
define a "potential" at each point, which is
just a number. Numbers being easier to work
with than vectors, usually, this is an
improvement. The rate that the potential is
changing at each point tells you both the
direction and speed of the fluid.

Velocity and potential

Velocity potential

curlis avector operatorthat describes theinfinitesimal

rotationof a 3-dimensionalvector field.

Continuity equation

But our target is to get a complete

equations in terms of velocity potential

To do this , consider the momentum

equation in terms of Euler's equation

Relating density and pressure

We consider flow to be isentropic . Hence any
change in pressure dp in the flow is
automatically accompanied by a corresponding
isentropic change in density

Velocity potential equation

How to find out a in

equation

Indian version

Finding a

If we find potential
Then
u v from
a from
M= v/a
Temperature , pressure and density
from

Disadvantage of equation
Velocity potential equation we
derived is in non linear equation
Very difficult to solve analytically
FVM, FEM will be used
So we need to make few
assumptions to make this equation
linear. And this assumption made
equation applicable for thin section
at small angle of attack.

Original version
(complicated)

Linearized version
(acceptable)

Linearized potential
equation

Perturbation
Small disturbance along x
Disturbance along y
So

Perturbation

In terms of VP

SUB THE RELATIONS INTO VELOCITY

POTENTIAL EQUATION

Perturbation velocity potential

equation

Rewritten in terms of

Perturbation velocity potential

equation 3d form

After finding a in 3d form

Pertrubation
These velocities are not small , they
can be quite large in stagnation
region in front of blunt nose

Further linearization

 The below equation is still irrotational, but left hand side is linear.
But right hand side is non linear
Size of the perturbation can be larger
or smaller

Case 1) limitation our consideration

to small perturbation
For a slender body at small angle of
attack,

Final equation ( 2d and 3d)

Final equation ( 2d and 3d) in terms

of perturbation velocity potential

Linearized perturbation velocity

potential equation

Problem with equation

Since the equation is linear partial
differential equation, it is simpler to
solve
But it is not representing the real
conditions
Due to the assumption made in
obtaining equation , it is reasonably
valid for the following combined
condition

In other words
Perturbation must be small
Dont use it in transonic flow
(.8<M<1.2)
Dont use in hypersonic flow(M>5)
Thus it is applicable for subsonic and
supersonic flow
But still flow is isentropic and
irrotational

Why transonic and hypersonic flow

neglected?
In transonic flow, both subsonic and
supersonic exist and make flow more
turbulent with irrregular shaped
shocks
In hypersonic flow , strong shock
form very close to boundary and this
region has high temperature

Linearized pressure co
efficient

Alternative form

Cp with respect to the linerarized

theory
USING TOTOAL ENTHALPY AND
ISENTROPIC CONDITIONS Cp
becomes

Linearized subsonic flow

Datas collected from low speed
aerodynamics methods are highly
sufficient for airfoil design and
related flow analysis that were done
before 1930-1940.
But after introduction of high speed
engines, incompressible flow theory
is no longer acceptable.

Linearized subsonic flow

But the amount of data collected is
huge and it has to be used in any
other form .
So in order to use this incompressible
theory for high speed subsonic flow,
then some corrections should be
made to include this theory to high
speed flow analysis
Such method are called
compressibility corrections

Prandtl glauert corrections

The most widely used
correction is prandtl glauert
correction
This method is based on
lineraized perturbation
velocity potential equation .
Therefore it is limited to thin
airfoils at small angle of
attack
It is completely or purely
subsonic theory and give
inappropriate result at value
of free stream mach number
= 0.7 or above

Prandtl glauert corrections

Condition: subsonic , compressible ,
inviscid flow over a airfoil
Angle of attack is small and thin
Shape of airfoil =y=f(x)

Transformation
Let us transform the independent
variables x and y into new space

Transformation with new velocity

potential and chain rule

After substitution

New velocity potential in

transformed space

Differentiating with respect to y and

x

Final equation

Laplace equation ( governing

relation for incompressible flow)

So what we did ?
We started with a subsonic
compressible flow in physical (x,y)
space where flow is represented by
obtained from
And we have related this flow to an
incompressible flow in transformed
Where the flow is represented by
Which is obtained from

Is airfoil is same after

transformation ?
Based on flow tangency condition

If
, hence the above
equation becomes

Physical plane

Transformed plane

Physical plane and transformed

plane shape

Final relation

It implies that shape of the airfoil in the transformed

space is the same as in the physical plane

Hence the above

transformation relates the
compressible flow over the
airfoil in (x,y) space to the
incompressible flow in
space over the same
airfoil

Practical results= pressure co

efficient

 So Cp used in compressible form is

converted into incompressible form .
So the incompressible form of Cp will
be

= linearized pressure
coefficient for the inc
for the
incompressible flow

Prandtl glauert rule

We already know that
So we got

The above equation is called prandtl glauert rule .

It states that, if we know the incompressible
pressure distribution over an airfoil, then the
compressible pressure distribution over the same
airfoil can be obtained from above formula or
equation . Therefore , this formula truly a
compressible correction to incompressible data

Coefficient of lift and drag

Improved compressibility corrections

( furthur increase in speed)

Comparing
Graph

Description
Even though prandtl
correction is easy to apply ,
it actually under predicts
the experimental data ,
whereas the improved
compressibility corrections
are clearly more accurate
Reason is prandtl based on
linear theory. But karman
and laitone rules attempt
to account for some non
linear aspects of flow

Upper critical and lower critical

mach number
At lower critical mach number ,
airflow around the entire aircraft is
subsonic
At the upper critical mach number ,
airflow around the entire aircraft is
supersonic

The super critical airfoil

An airfoil with high critical mach
number is very desirable
So if we increase critical mach
number , then we can also increase
drag divergence mach number ,
which follows closely after critical
mach number.

Discovery of super critical

airfoil
It was happened accidently. During
the development of NACA 64 SERIES
( which was supposed to encourage
laminar flow), some vital break
through happened.
64 series showed good results and
produced high critical mach number
when compared to other shapes.

Thinner airfoil
We already found that any airfoil with
less thickness showed good
performance in case of high speed
flow related with critical mach
number
But there is a constraint in his
approach , when we view this issue
in structural point of view,

Structural constraint
Airfoil thickness has its own limit. For
eg , making less thick airfoil will led
to unavailability of space for fuel
storage and strength of the structure
will be reduced.
So airfoil should satisfies both
structure and aerodynamic aspects

How to delay large drag rise

For that we have an approach :
Rather than increasing critical mach number
, let us strive to increase the mach number
increment between critical mach number
and drag divergence mach number
This philosophy has been pursued since
1965 , leading to the design of a new family
of airfoils called super critical airfoil

 The purpose of a super critical is to

increase the value of drag
divergence mach number although
critical mach number may change
very little.
The first airfoil shape is NACA 64
SERIES and second one is super
critical airfoil.

 Super critical airfoil has flap top,

thus encouraging a region of
supersonic flow with lower values of
M than the NACA 64 series.
In turn the terminating shock is
weaker , thus less drag is used

Wind tunnel
Aerodynamicists use wind tunnels to test models
of proposed aircraft. In the tunnel, the engineer
can carefully control the flow conditions which
affect forces on the aircraft.
By making careful measurements of the forces on
the model, the engineer can predict the forces on
the full scale aircraft
And by using special diagnostic techniques, the
engineer can better understand and improve the
performance of the aircraft.

Wind tunnels (basis of loop under

construction)

Open and closed tunnel

A high speed wind tunnels may be of
open circuit type which draw air
from outside atmosphere
Wind tunnels of closed circuit type
re-circulate the inside air
These tunnels are generally used for
continuous or long test durations.

Power constrained on super sonic

tunnel
power required to run a supersonic wind
tunnel is enormous and is proportional to the
cube of the velocity. For this reason high
speed wind tunnels of continuous running
type are not generally preferred
Hence most of them operate intermittently
either using high pressure tanks or vacuum
tanks. The wind tunnels which use high
pressure reservoirs are called as
intermittent supersonic blow down wind
tunnels.

(intermittent wind tunnel )occurring at irregular

intervals

Blowdown wind tunnel

the wind tunnels which use high
pressure reservoirs are called as
intermittent supersonic blowdown
wind tunnels

Indraft wind tunnel

Another way of achieving the huge
power output is with the use of a
vacuum storage tank. These tunnels
are called Indraft or Induction
supersonic wind tunnels

Speed Regime
Wind tunnels are often denoted by the
speed in the test section relative to the
speed of sound..
Tunnels are classified as subsonic (M < .8) ,
transonic (.8 < M < 1.2) ,
supersonic (1.2 < M < 5.0) , or
hypersonic (M > 5.0).
The distinction by Mach number is caused
by the realtive importance of
compressibility efffects.

Speed regime
for subsonic flows, we may neglect the effects of
compressibility; for transonic and supersonic flows,
must be considered.
For hypersonic flows, we must make additional
considerations for the chemical state of the gas.
Compressibility affects the design of the test section of
a wind tunnel: for subsonic tunnels, the test section
has the smallest cross-sectional area of the tunnel;
for supersonic tunnels, the throat of the nozzle has the
smallest area and the test section area is chosen to
achieve a desired Mach number in the test section.

Transonic , supersonic and subsonic wind tunnel

Hypersonic wind tunnel

Working Fluid
Wind tunnels can be designated by the type of fluid that
is used in the tunnel.
For most low speed aircraft wind tunnel testing, air is
moved through the tunnel.
In some hypersonic facilities, nitrogen or helium has been
used as the working fluid. Similarly, cryogenic nitrogen
has been used for high Reynold's number testing of
transonic flows.
There are several wind tunnels around the world that are
used to study ice build-up on aircraft parts. These icing
tunnels include refigeration devices to cool the air in the
tunnel and water spray devices to provide liquid droplets
in the test section.

Water tunnel
To visualize shock
waves for high
speed aircraft, or
to study the flow
around
submarines or
boats, water is
used as the
working fluid

Icing tunnel

Special purpose
Propulsion wind tunnels have special
requirements for handling the high
temperature exhaust from turbine or
rocket engines.
Flow Visualization
Wind tunnels that are used to study
the stability of aircraft must allow
the model to move freely within the
test section.

Measurement force
balance
in some wind tunnel tests, the aerodynamic forces and
moments on the model are measured directly.
The model is mounted in the tunnel on a special
machine called a force balance. The output from
the balance is a signal that is related to the
forces and moments on the model. Balances can be
used to measure both the lift and drag forces. The
balance must be calibrated against a known value of
the force before, and sometimes during, the test. Force
measurements usually require some data reduction or
post-test processing to account for Reynolds number
or Mach number effects on the model during testing.

Blow down tunnel

Blowdown tunnel
Blowdown tunnels are normally used from high subsonic to
high supersonic flow conditions. test section sits at the end
of a supersonic nozzle
the Mach number in the test section is determined by
pressure and temperature in the plenum and the area ratio
between the test section on the nozzle throat.
Condensation :As the flow expands in the nozzle, the
pressure decreases and any moisture in the tunnel may
condense and liquify in the test section-dryer bed.
The air is pumped into a closed high pressure chamber
upstream of the plenum. At the same time, air is pumped out
of a closed low pressure chamber downstream of the test
section.
Test times are limited in blowdown wind tunnels.

Blowdown tunnel
the pressure ratio establishes a supersonic flow in
the test section and the air flows from the high
pressure chamber to the low pressure
chamber. As air leaves the high pressure
chamber, the pressure in the chamber decreases.
Likewise, as air enters the low pressure chamber,
the pressure in that chamber increases.
Eventually, the pressure in the two chambers
equalize, the flow stops, and the test is finished

Shock down

Indraft tunnel

The advantage of this

configuration is that the
conditions in the plenum
remain constant and there is
no need for a pressure
regulator.
The disadvantage is that the
pressure ratio across the test
section is usually lower than
a closed confifguration and
therefore the maximum Mach
number is lower
The advantage of this
configuration is that it is
cheaper than a closed
configuration in both
construction and operation.
But the tunnel is very loud
and normally requires some
type of muffler downstream
of the test section.

 Advantages of the
Blowdown Tunnel
High Mach capability. Easy
tunnel "starting".
Lower construction and
operating costs.
Superior design for
propulsion and smoke
visualization. There is no
accumulation of exhaust
products in an open tunnel.
Smaller loads on model
during startup because of
faster starts.

Disadvantages of
the Blowdown
Tunnel
Shorter test times
require faster (often
more expensive)
instrumentation.
Need for pressure
regulator valves.
Noisy operation.

 This type of tunnel is

also called an Eiffel
tunnel, after the
French engineer, or an
NPL tunnel , after the
National Physical
Laboratory in England,
where the tunnel was
first used.
In the open return
tunnel, the air that
passes through the
test section is
gathered from the

Disadvantages of the Open

Advantages of the Return Tunnel
Open Return TunnelPoor flow quality possible in the
test section. Flow turning the
Low construction
corner into the bellmouth may
cost.
require extensive screens or flow
Superior design for
straighteners. The tunnel should
propulsion and smoke also be kept away from objects in
the room (walls, desks,
visualization. There is people ...)that produce
no accumulation of asymmetries to the bell mouth.
exhaust products in Tunnels open to the atmosphere
are also affected by winds and
an open tunnel.
weather.
High operating costs. The fan
must continually accelerate
flow through the tunnel.
Noisy operation. Loud noise from
the fan may limit times of
operation.

Flow visualization