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Decisions
Every management mistake ends up in inventory.
Michael C.
Bergerac
Former Chief Executive
Revlon,
Inc.
Chapter 9
CR (2004) Prentice Hall, Inc.
9-1
CONTROLLING
Customer
service goals
The product
Logistics service
Ord. proc. & info. sys.
Transport Strategy
Transport fundamentals
Transport decisions
PLANNING
Inventory Strategy
Forecasting
Inventory decisions
Purchasing and supply
scheduling decisions
Storage fundamentals
Storage decisions
ORGANIZING
Inventory Decisions in
Strategy
Location Strategy
Location decisions
The network planning process
9-2
9-3
Production
Outbound
transportation
Finished goods
warehousing
Customers
Receiving
Material
sources
Production
materials
Finished goods
Shipping
Inventories
in-process
Inventory
locations
9-4
economies
-Allows for long production runs
-Takes advantage of price-quantity discounts
-Allows for transport economies from larger shipment sizes
Act as a hedge against price changes
-Allows purchasing to take place under most favorable price
terms
Protect against uncertainties in demand and lead times
-Provides a measure of safety to keep operations
running when demand levels and lead times cannot be known
for sure
Act as a hedge against contingencies
-Buffers against such events as strikes, fires, and
disruptions in supply
CR (2004) Prentice Hall, Inc.
9-5
9-6
Types of Inventories
Pipeline
-Inventories in transit
Speculative
-Goods purchased in anticipation of price increases
Regular/Cyclical/Seasonal
-Inventories held to meet normal operating needs
Safety
-Extra stocks held in anticipation of demand and
Nature of Demand
Perpetual demand
-Continues well into the foreseeable future
Seasonal demand
-Varies with regular peaks and valleys throughout
the year
Accurately forecasting
demand is singly the
Lumpy demand
most important factor
-Highly variable (3 Mean)
in good inventory
Regular
demand
management
-Not highly variable (3 < Mean)
Terminating demand
-Demand goes to 0 in foreseeable future
Derived demand
-Demand is determined from the demand of another
item of which it is a part
9-8
Inventory Management
Philosophies
Pull
-Draws inventory into the stocking location
-Each stocking location is considered independent
-Maximizes local control of inventories
Push
-Allocates production to stocking locations based on
overall demand
-Encourages economies of scale in production
Just-in-time
-Attempts to synchronize stock flows so as to just
meet demand as it occurs
-Minimizes the need for inventory
CR (2004) Prentice Hall, Inc.
9-9
Inventory Management
Philosophies (Contd)
Supply-Driven
-Supply quantities and timing are unknown
-All supply must be accepted and processed
-Inventories are controlled through demand
Aggregate Control
-Classification of items:
Groups items according to their sales level
9-10
Warehouse #1
A1
A2
Plant
Q2
Warehouse #2
A3
Demand
forecast
Q3
A = Allocation quantity to each warehouse
Q = Requested replenishment quantity
by each warehouse
CR (2004) Prentice Hall, Inc.
Warehouse #3
Demand
forecast
9-11
9-12
9-13
9-14
Service objectives
-Setting stocking levels so that there is only a
Minimum cost
reorder quantity
Cost
Total cost
yin
r
r
a
os
c
g
Procurement cost
Stockout cost
CR (2004) Prentice Hall, Inc.
Replenishment quantity
9-16
Glossary of Terms
D average annual demand, units
d average period demand, units
S procurement cost per order, $/order
I carrying costs as a percent of product value, % per year
C product value, $ per unit
sd standard deviation of demand (d), units
k out - of - stock cost, $ per unit
p purchase price
s ' standard deviation of compound demand distribution
E( z ) partial expectation or unit normal loss integral
P probability of being in - stock during lead time (Q - system)
or during lead time plus order cycle time (P - system
Q order quantity
ROP reorder point quantity, units
T order interval, e.g., days
MAX target inventory level, units
z normal deviate or number of standard deviations from mean
on compound demand distribution
r safety stock, or z x s' , units
TC total relevant cost, $
SL service level as a percent of total annual demand
LT , sLT average and standard deviation of lead time
CPn probability of n units being sold
9-17
Daily stocking of
newspapers in
vending
machines is a
good example
Cumulative
probability
0.15
0.35
0.65
0.85
0.95
1.00
9-19
Solution
Profit = $50 35 = $15
Loss = $35 (0.5)(50) = $10
CPn = 15/(15 + 10) = 0.60
CPn is between 15 and 20 items, round up and order 20
items.
CR (2004) Prentice Hall, Inc.
9-20
Note: No uncertainty
in demand or lead
timemanage
regular (cycle) stock
only
9-21
Lead
time
Order
Order
Placed Received
Lead
Time
time
Order
Order
Placed
Received
9-22
Famous EOQ
formula
Rule
Rule When
Whenthe
theinventory
inventorylevel
leveldrops
drops to
to150
150units
units
(ROP)
(ROP) then
then reorder
reorder 322
322 units
units(Q*).
(Q*).
CR (2004) Prentice Hall, Inc.
9-23
C = $5/unit
LT = 3 weeks
P = 99% during lead time
Quantity on hand
Q
Place
order
DDLT
ROP
Receive
order
Stockout
LT
LT
Time
9-25
Inventory level
Quantity for
control
Actual
on hand
ROP
Safety stock
0
LT
CR (2004) Prentice Hall, Inc.
Time
LT
9-26
P
Week 1
Week 2
+
Week 3
=
sd=10
sd=10
sd=10
d =100
d =100
d =100
S=17.3
X = 300 ROP
X d LT 100(3) 300
s ' sd LT 10 3 17.3
9-27
9-28
9-29
9-30
9-31
11,107 units
3,099 units
1.5 months
$0.11/unit
$10/order
20%/year
$0.01/unit
9-32
Estimate P
P 1 QIC 1 11,008(0.2 0)(0.11) 0.82
Dk
11,107(12) (0.01)
Revise Q
Find App A, z@0.82=0.92 and from App B,
E(0.92)=0.0968
For these data, s'd was previously calculated as
3,795 units
CR (2004) Prentice Hall, Inc.
9-33
2D S ks' E
IC
(z)
Revise P
P 1 12,872(0.20)(0.11) 0.79
11,107(12) (0.01)
9-34
9-35
Just add
this term
where
p = output or supply rate
d = demand rate
and p > d. ROP remains unchanged.
CR (2004) Prentice Hall, Inc.
9-36
C = $5/unit
LT = 3 weeks
P = 0.99
k = $2/unit
products:
1. Of low value
2. That are purchased
from the same vendor
3. Having economies of
scale in production,
purchasing, and
transportation
9-38
Q2
Q1
Stock
level
reviewed
Order
received
LT
M = maximum level
M - q = replenishment quantity
LT = lead time
LT
Time
T
T = review interval
q = quantity on hand
Qi = order quantity
9-39
9-40
Z(s)
s sd T LT
'
X
*
MAX
= d(T + LT)
9-41
Find MAX
MAX = d(T* + LT) + z(s)
= 50(6.4 + 3) + 2.33(30.66)
= 470 + 71.44 = 541 units
Rule
Rule Review
Review the
theinventory
inventory every
every6.4
6.4weeks
weeksand
and place
place
an
anorder
order for
for the
thedifference
differencebetween
betweenthe
the MAX
MAXlevel
levelof
of 541
541
units
unitsand
andthe
thequantity
quantityon
onhand
hand++quantity
quantityon
onorder
order
backorders.
backorders.
CR (2004) Prentice Hall, Inc.
9-42
9-43
Sales
20000
25000
15000
50000
25000
10000
20000
15000
5000
500
30000
10000
5000
15000
5000
5000
20000
5000
20000
Basis
20
On
hand
Date
80500 2/2
180500 2/5
160500 2/6
135500 2/6
120500 2/6
70500 2/6
45500 2/8
35500 2/14
15500 2/15
500 2/16
500* 2/21
0 2/26
100000 2/27
70000 2/28
60000 2/28
55000 3/1
40000 3/2
35000 3/8
30000 3/8
10000 3/12
5000 3/12
105000 3/12
85000 3/20
Grain
Color
L
White
In/
Customer
Copies
Bel-Gar
Bel-Gar
Superior
Unt Sply
Berea Prtg
Sagamore
100M
50M
Bel-Gar
Bel-Gar
Inkspot
Lcl 25UAW
Ptrs Dvl
Shkr Sav
Copies
Untd Tor
Sagamore
Sagamore
150M
Untd Tor
Preston
Midland
Finish
RmSeal
On
Sales
hand
50000
35000
5000
30000
15000
15000
25000
0*
15000
0*
15000
0*
5000
0*
100000
150000
5000
145000
15000
130000
5000
125000
50000
75000
2500
72500
25000
47500
35000
12500
10000
2500
2500
0
12500
0*
150000
40000
110000
50000
60000
15000
45000
Grade
Advantage Bond
In/
Date
Customer
Sales
3/30
Sup Meats
25000
3/30
Copies
50
3/30
Ptrs Dvl
5000
3/30
Belmont
10000
4/2
Berea Prtg
4950
4/2
Berea Prtg
15050
4/9
REM
500
4/12
Mid Ross
5000
5/7
Ohio Ost
5000
5/8
Inkspots
5000
5/8
Prts Dvl
2500
5/11
100M
5/14
BVR
5000
5/15
Guswold
10000
5/16
ESB
15000
5/16
Superior
50000
5/16
J Stephen
5000
5/16
Am Aster
15000
5/16
Am Aster
10000
5/22
Sagamore
15000
Coding
21200
M. Base Cost
Date Min
2.64
4/2
Max
Location
Ctn. Skid Cont.
F 14
5M
On
Hand
20000
19950
14950
4950
0
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
100000
95000
85000
70000
20000
15000
0
0*
0*
125M
250M
Att.
9-44
C = $5/unit
P = 0.99 during lead time
9-45
Processing time
1, s 2p 0 .1
Transport time
Inbound transport
4 , si2 1.0
Outbound transport
Pool point
Transport time
X
CR (2004) Prentice Hall, Inc.
2 , s o2 0 .25
Distributor
9-46
where
2
sLT
sp2 si2 so2
0.1 1.0 0.25
1.35 days
CR (2004) Prentice Hall, Inc.
9-47
Now
s' 7x102 1002 x1.35 14,200 119 .16 days
and
Q* 2(100)(10) 63 units
0.1(5)
*
Q
AIL z(s' ) 63 2.33(199.16) 309 units
2
2
9-48
2(O S )
i
(I C D )
i
where
O = common procurement cost, $/order
*
*
Note:
Note: Q
Q* == TT*xd
xd
9-49
B
75 units
10 units
14 days
25 %
20 $/order
80 $/order
92 %
200 $/unit
45 $/unit
365 days
9-50
then z@80%=0.84
MAX A X z(sA' ) 30(4.35 14) 0.84(34.3) 579 units
CR (2004) Prentice Hall, Inc.
9-51
9-52
9-53
Quantity on hand
Q1
Q2
Q*
ROP
q
LT
CR (2004) Prentice Hall, Inc.
LT
Time
9-54
The T, R, M variant
This is a combination of the min-max and the periodic
review systems. The stock levels are reviewed
periodically, but control the release of the replenishment
order by whether the reorder point is reached. This
method is useful where demand is low, such that small
quantities might be released under a periodic review
method.
CR (2004) Prentice Hall, Inc.
9-55
Inventory level
T,R,M variant
Q1
Q2
R
q
LT
LT
Time
T = review time
R = reorder point M Q = replenishment quantity
CR (2004) Prentice Hall, Inc.
9-56
9-57
Units
12,500
0
-5,342
-4,000
3,158
9-58
9-59
Q3
Q2
Q1
Stock
order
Order
received
0
TASO
LT
TASO
M = maximum level
TASO = time to accumulate stock order
CR (2004) Prentice Hall, Inc.
LT
TASO
Time
Qi = order quantity
LT = lead time
Quantity on hand
9-60
s 'E D /Q
(z)
s 'E
(z)
Note: Higher
than P
9-61
9-62
9-63
9-64
Warehouse
1
2
3
Current
stock
level,
units
400
350
0
Forecasted
demand,
units
2,300
1,400
900
4,600
Forecast
error (std.
dev.), units
100
55
20
9-65
Total
requirements
a
2,428
1,470
926
4,824
9-66
(2)
(3)=
(4)
(5)=
Pro(4)+(3)
(1)(2)
Total
Onration
Net
require- hand requireof
AlloWare- ments, stock, ments, excess, cation,
house units
units
units
units
units
a
b
1
2,428
400 2,028
463
2,491
2
1,470
350 1,120
282
1,402
3
926
0
926
181
1,107
c
Total 4,824
4,074
926
5,000
Total requirements less (quantity on hand + quantity on order backorders)
b
Excess purchase quantity times forecast for warehouse divided by total
forecast quantity. For example, (5,000 4,074) x 2,300/4,600 = 463
c
5,000 4,074 = 926
a
9-67
Multi-Echelon Inventories
Control the entire channel inventory levels, not just a
single echelon.
Warehouse
echelon
R1
Warehouse
lead-time, LTw
S
Supplier
R2
Warehouse
d 1 , sd1
d 2 , sd 2
R3
d 3 , sd 3
Retailer
9-68
Std. dev.,
units
Retailer 1
202.5
16.8
Retailer 2
100.5
15.6
Retailer 3
302.5
18.0
Combined
605.5
32.4
9-69
Retailer 2
Retailer 3
Reorder qty, Q
312
220
381
61
35
87
167
120
202
100
90
Total sales (%)
80
70
60
50
40
30
A items
20
B items
C items
10
0
0
CR (2004) Prentice Hall, Inc.
20
40
60
Total items (%)
80
100
9-72
Inventory Consolidation
(Risk Pooling)
Illustration of risk pooling
Suppose there is a product stocked in two warehouses.
The replenishment quantities are determined by the
economic order quantity formula. The replenishment
lead-time is 0.5 months, the cost for a replenishment
order is $50, the inventory carrying cost is 2% per
month, and the item value is $75 per unit. The
probability of an out of stock during the lead-time period
is 5%. The demand is normally distributed with typical
demand over six months as follows.
9-73
Month
1
2
3
4
5
6
Avg. (D)
Std. Dev. (sd)
Demand
in Whse
A
35
62
46
25
37
43
41.33
11.38
Combined
Demand Demand in a
in Whse
Central
B
Whse
67
102
83
145
71
117
62
87
55
92
66
109
67.33
108.66
8.58
19.07
Estimate the average inventory levels for twowarehouse and one-warehouse supply channels.
CR (2004) Prentice Hall, Inc.
9-74
Regular stock
2DS
RS Q IC
2
2
2(41.33)(50)
0.02(75) 52.49 26.25 units
RSA
2
2
2(67.33)(50)
0.02(75) 67.00 33.50 units
RSB
2
2
Regular stock in system is
RSs RSA RSB 26.25 33.50 59.75 units
CR (2004) Prentice Hall, Inc.
9-75
9-76
Total inventory
AIL = Regular stock + Safety stock
Two
warehouses
9-77
100
95
90
85
80
75
70
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
9-78
Virtual Inventories
Stockouts are filled from other stocking locations in
the distribution network
9-79
Demand 1
Virtual Inventories
Stock
location B
Secondary
assignment
Primary
assignment
Primary
assignment
Stock
location A
Demand 2
9-80
Potential Benefit
of Cross Filling
Suppose that an item is stocked at a fill rate of 80% in
4 stocking locations. If cross filling is used, what is
the effective fill rate for the customer?
Fill rate = [1 (.20)(.20)(.20)(.20)] x 100 = 99.8%
9-81
Demand 1
Stock
location B
Secondary
assignment
Primary
assignment
Demand dispersion
Stock
location A
Primary
assignment
Demand 2
9-82
2S D
AIL Q IC
2
2
0.5
kD0.5
If stock-to-demand control
AIL is a function of
demand with
exponents ranging
from 0.5 to 1.0
AIL kD1.0
Virtual Inventories
CR (2004) Prentice Hall, Inc.
9-83
demand
control
95
90
85
80
75
70
0
EOQ-based
control
20
40
60
80
100
Virtual Inventories
CR (2004) Prentice Hall, Inc.
9-84
Observation about
Regular Stock
A system of multiple stocking locations
will carry its maximum regular stock
when demand is balanced among them
Virtual Inventories
CR (2004) Prentice Hall, Inc.
9-85
2 locations
Demand is dispersed 50 and 150
Fill rate is 90%
Stocking policy is D with k=1
0.5
Virtual Inventories
CR (2004) Prentice Hall, Inc.
9-86
Example (Contd)
No cross filling
Location A
Cross filling
Location B
Location A
Location B
Demand 1
50
45a
5b
Demand 2
150
15
135
Total
50
150
60
140
Regular
stock
7.1
12.2
7.7
11.8
System inv.
a
50x.90=45
[50x(1-0.90)]x0.905
19.3
19.5
Virtual Inventories
CR (2004) Prentice Hall, Inc.
9-87
% of inventory compared
with no cross-filling
60
70
80
90
100
Virtual Inventories
9-88
Secondary
assignment
Demand 1
Primary
assignment
Stock
locationB
location
B
Primary
assignment
Stock
locationA
location
A
Demand 2
to (demand)
Fill rate
Observation
A system of multiple stocking
locations will carry its minimum
safety stock when demand is
balanced among them
Virtual Inventories
CR (2004) Prentice Hall, Inc.
9-89
ss zs * LT
where s* is the demand standard deviation at
location N
When cross filling,
s * FR 2sd2
Virtual Inventories
9-90
2 locations
Weekly demand and std. dev. are (50,5) and
(150,15)
9-91
Location B
Cross filling
Location A
Location B
Std. Dev. 1
4.7500
0.2375
Std. Dev. 2
15
0.7125
14.2500
Combined
15
4.8
14.3
8.3
24.8
7.9
23.5
Safety stock
System inv.
33.1
31.4
Virtual Inventories
CR (2004) Prentice Hall, Inc.
9-92
Percent reduction
25
FR=70%
20
Lower safety
stocks from
lower fill rates
15
10
FR=90%
No crossfilling
0
0
15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95 100
Virtual Inventories
CR (2004) Prentice Hall, Inc.
9-93
Mean demand,
units
Std. Dev.,
units
300
138
100
80
System
400
160
Answer
Solve for K in AIL=KD. K=D1-/TO, where TO is 52
weeks/6 weeks of demand or 8.67. This assumes a
control policy based on of 0.7. Hence,
K=(400x52)1-.7/8.67=2.28. The demand ratio r between
the 2 locations is 100/400=0.25. Now solve for two
parameters of the cross-filling curve.
1.7
1
10
([
400
x
52
])
tD
X
1.73
ICK 0.25(200)(2.28)
and
1.96(160) 8 0.4
Y zs LT
KD
2.28(400x52)0.7
Now, from the decision curve, dont cross fill this item.
Virtual Inventories 9-95
CR (2004) Prentice Hall, Inc.
LEGEND
D = annual system demand
s = system demand std.
dev.
C = item unit cost
I = annual carrying cost
rate (%)
K, = inventory
control parameters
t = transportation rate
FR = item fill rate
r = ratio of minimum
demand to system
demand
LT = lead-time in demand
std. dev. time units
z = normal deviate at FR %
tD 1
X
ICK
zs LT
KD
Below
decision
curvedont
cross fill
Virtual Inventories
CR (2004) Prentice Hall, Inc.
9-96
9-97
9-98
9-99
Inventory-Throughput
Curve
3000
2500
2000
Ii = 1.57Di0.72
R = 0.85
1500
1000
500
0
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
9-100
Inventory-Throughput Curve
Example
Suppose two warehouses with 390,000 lb. and
770,000 lb. of throughput respectively are to be
consolidated into a single warehouse with 390,000 +
770,000 = 1,160,000 lb. of annual throughput. How
much inventory is likely to be in the single warehouse?
The inventory-throughput curve developed from the
companys multiple warehouse stocks is shown in the
figure below.
Note Reading from the plot, the inventory in the
consolidated warehouse has dropped to 262,000 lb.
from 132,000 + 203,000 = 335,000 lb. in the two
warehouses.
CR (2004) Prentice Hall, Inc.
9-101
Inventory-Throughput Curve
450
400
350
AILi = 3.12Di0.628
R2 = 0.77
300
262
250
203
200
150
132
100
Current
warehouse
50
Consolidated
warehouse
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
9-102
Turnover Ratio
Annual sales
Turnover ratio
Average inventory
A fruit grower stocks its dried fruit products in 12 warehouses
around the country. What is the turnover ratio for the
distribution system?
Warehouse
no.
1
2
3
4
5
6
Annual
Average
warehouse
inventory
throughput, $
level, $
21,136,032
2,217,790
16,174,988
2,196,364
78,559,012
9,510,027
17,102,486
2,085,246
88,228,672 11,443,489
40,884,400
5,293,539
TO ratio
$425,295,236
9.7
$43,701,344
Warehouse
no.
7
8
9
10
11
12
Totals
Annual
warehouse
throughput, $
43,105,917
47,136,632
24,745,328
57,789,509
16,483,970
26,368,290
425,295,236
Average
inventory
level, $
6,542,079
5,722,640
2,641,138
6,403,076
1,991,016
2,719,330
43,701,344
$ are at cost
9-103
Areas under
Standardized
Normal
Distribution
.00
0.5000
0.5398
0.5793
0.6179
0.6554
.01
0.5040
0.5438
0.5832
0.6217
0.6591
.02
0.5080
0.5478
0.5871
0.6255
0.6628
.03
0.5120
0.5517
0.5910
0.6293
0.6664
.04
0.5160
0.5557
0.5948
0.6331
0.6700
.05
0.5199
0.5596
0.5987
0.6368
0.6736
.06
0.5239
0.5636
0.6026
0.6406
0.6772
.07
0.5279
0.5675
0.6064
0.6443
0.6808
.08
0.5319
0.5714
0.6103
0.6480
0.6844
.09
0.5359
0.5753
0.6141
0.6517
0.6879
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.6915
0.7257
0.7580
0.7881
0.8159
0.6950
0.7291
0.7611
0.7910
0.8186
0.6985
0.7324
0.7642
0.7939
0.8212
0.7019
0.7357
0.7673
0.7967
0.8238
0.7054
0.7389
0.7704
0.7995
0.8264
0.7088
0.7422
0.7734
0.8023
0.8289
0.7123
0.7454
0.7764
0.8051
0.8315
0.7157
0.7486
0.7794
0.8078
0.8340
0.7190
0.7517
0.7823
0.8106
0.8365
0.7224
0.7549
0.7852
0.8133
0.8389
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
0.8413
0.8643
0.8849
0.9032
0.9192
0.8438
0.8665
0.8869
0.9049
0.9207
0.8461
0.8686
0.8888
0.9066
0.9222
0.8485
0.8708
0.8907
0.9082
0.9236
0.8508
0.8729
0.8925
0.9099
0.9251
0.8531
0.8749
0.8944
0.9115
0.9265
0.8554
0.8770
0.8962
0.9131
0.9279
0.8577
0.8790
0.8980
0.9147
0.9292
0.8599
0.8810
0.8997
0.9162
0.9306
0.8621
0.8830
0.9015
0.9177
0.9319
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
0.9332
0.9452
0.9554
0.9641
0.9713
0.9345
0.9463
0.9564
0.9649
0.9719
0.9357
0.9474
0.9573
0.9656
0.9726
0.9370
0.9484
0.9582
0.9664
0.9732
0.9382
0.9495
0.9591
0.9671
0.9738
0.9394
0.9505
0.9599
0.9678
0.9744
0.9406
0.9515
0.9608
0.9686
0.9750
0.9418
0.9525
0.9616
0.9693
0.9756
0.9429
0.9535
0.9625
0.9699
0.9761
0.9441
0.9545
0.9633
0.9706
0.9767
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
0.9772
0.9821
0.9861
0.9893
0.9918
0.9778
0.9826
0.9864
0.9896
0.9920
0.9783
0.9830
0.9868
0.9898
0.9922
0.9788
0.9834
0.9871
0.9901
0.9925
0.9793
0.9838
0.9875
0.9904
0.9927
0.9798
0.9842
0.9878
0.9906
0.9929
0.9803
0.9846
0.9881
0.9909
0.9931
0.9808
0.9850
0.9884
0.9911
0.9932
0.9812
0.9854
0.9887
0.9913
0.9934
0.9817
0.9857
0.9890
0.9916
0.9936
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
0.9938
0.9953
0.9965
0.9974
0.9981
0.9940
0.9955
0.9966
0.9975
0.9982
0.9941
0.9956
0.9967
0.9976
0.9982
0.9943
0.9957
0.9968
0.9977
0.9983
0.9945
0.9959
0.9969
0.9977
0.9984
0.9946
0.9960
0.9970
0.9978
0.9984
0.9948
0.9961
0.9971
0.9979
0.9985
0.9949
0.9962
0.9972
0.9979
0.9985
0.9951
0.9963
0.9973
0.9980
0.9986
0.9952
0.9964
0.9974
0.9981
0.9986
3.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
0.9987
0.9990
0.9993
0.9995
0.9997
0.9987
0.9991
0.9993
0.9995
0.9997
0.9987
0.9991
0.9994
0.9995
0.9997
0.9988
0.9991
0.9994
0.9996
0.9997
0.9988
0.9992
0.9994
0.9996
0.9997
0.9989
0.9992
0.9994
0.9996
0.9997
0.9989
0.9992
0.9994
0.9996
0.9997
0.9989
0.9992
0.9995
0.9996
0.9997
0.9990
0.9993
0.9995
0.9996
0.9997
0.9990
0.9993
0.9995
0.9997
0.9998
9-104
Unit Normal
Loss
Integrals
9-105