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History Of Refrigeration
Refrigerantion Principle
Modern refrigeration and air-conditioning
equipment is dominated by vapour
compression refrigeration technology built
upon the thermodynamic principles of the
reverse Carnot cycle.
Refrigerant Changes phases during cooling
and used again and again.
What is a Refrigerant
Refrigerants are used as working substances in a
Refrigeration systems.
Fluids suitable for refrigeration purposes can be
classified into primary and secondary
refrigerants.
Primary refrigerants are those fluids, which are
used directly as working fluids, for example in
vapour compression and vapour absorption
refrigeration systems.
These fluids provide refrigeration by undergoing a
phase change process in the evaporator.
Secondary refrigerants are those liquids, which
are used for transporting thermal energy from
one location to other. Secondary refrigerants are
also known under the name brines or antifreezes
What is ChloroFloroCarcons
Todays refrigerants are
predominantly from a group of
compounds called halocarbons
(halogenated hydrocarbons) or
specifically fluorocarbons.
Chlorofluorocarbons were first
developed by General Motors
researchers in the 1920s and
commercialized by Dupont as
Freons.
Halocarbon Refrigerants
Halocarbon Refrigerant are all
synthetically produced and were
developed as the Freon family of
refrigerants.
Examples :
CFCs : R11, R12, R113, R114, R115
Areas of Application
CFC 11(R11)
CFC 12 ( R 12 )
CFC 13 (R 13)
CFC113 ( R113 )
Small to medium
industrial cooling
ODP
air-conditioning
system
and 1.07
CFC114 ( R114 )
In household refrigerators and in large industrial 0.8
Blend of R22 and cooling
R115 (R502)
Frozen food ice-cream display cases and warehouses 0.34
and food freezing plants. An excellent general low
N0RMAL REACTION
O2
=
O + O
O2 + O = O 3
RETARDED REACTION
O3
=
O2 + O
CCL2F2
=
CCLF2 + CL
O3 + CL = CLO + O2
O + CLO = CL + O2
MONTREAL PROTOCOL
developed countries
developing countries
CFCs
halons
HCFCs
Year1999 22,588 MT
2005
11,294 MT
2010
o MT
How to achieve the target?
Production is controlled through a production quota allocated to
each producer every year. The Ozone Cell conducts audits twice a
year to monitor the production.
How much has been Phaseout?CFC has been completely
phased out as on1st August, 2008
Components
Refrigerant
Evaporator/Chiller
Compressor
Condenser
Receiver
Thermostatic
expansion valve
(TXV)
Circulation of Refrigerant
Compressor
cold vapor from the evaporator is compressed, raising it temperature and boiling
point
adiabatic compression
T, b.p. ~ P
work done on the gas
Condenser
hot vapor from the compressor condenses outside the cold box, releasing latent heat
isothermal, isobaric condensation (horizontal line on PV diagram)
high temperature
T (hot)
latent heat of vaporization Q(hot)
Expansionvalve (throttling valve)
hot liquid from the condenser is depressurized, lowering its temperature and boiling
point
adiabatic, isochoric expansion (vertical line on PV diagram)
T, b.p. ~ P
no work done W=0
Evaporator
cold liquid from the expansion valve boils inside the cold box, absorbing latent heat
isothermal, isobaric boiling (horizontal line on PV diagram)
low temperature
T (cold)
latent heat of vaporization Q(cold)
Importance of Refrigerant
The thermodynamic efficiency of a refrigeration
system depends mainly on its operating
temperatures.
However, important practical issues such as the
system design, size, initial and operating costs,
safety, reliability, and serviceability etc. depend
very much on the type of refrigerant selected for
a given application.
Due to several environmental issues such as
ozone layer depletion and global warming and
their relation to the various refrigerants used, the
selection of suitable refrigerant has become one
of the most important issues in recent times.
Environmental Effects of
Refrigerants
Global warming :
Refrigerants directly contributing to global
warming when released to the atmosphere
Indirect contribution based on the energy
consumption of among others the
compressors ( CO2 produced by power
stations )
ECO-FRIENDLY REFRIGERANTS
C FC
A L T E R N A T IV E S .
H C FC
R 2 2 ,R 1 2 4
H FC
R 1 3 4 a ,R 1 5 2 a
N A T U R A L R E F R IG E R A N T
N H 3, H C 'S
Halocarbon Refrigerants
Halocarbon Refrigerant are all
synthetically produced and were
developed as the Freon family of
refrigerants.
Examples :
CFCs : R11, R12, R113, R114, R115
HCFCs : R22, R123
HFCs : R134a, R404a, R407C, R410a
HFCs
Remain a popular choice
especially for R22 phase out
Slide 30
Inorganic Refrigerants
Carbon Dioxide
Water
Ammonia
Air
Sulphur dioxide
HCFC
Transitional compounds with low ODP
Partially halogenated compounds of
hydrocarbon
Remaining hydrogen atom allows
Hydrolysis and can be absorbed.
R22, R123
HCFC
R22
ODP-0.05, GWP-1700
R22 has 40% more refrigerating capacity
Higher pressure and discharge temp and
not suitable for low temp application
Extensively used in commercial airconditioning and frozen food storage and
display cases
R123
ODP-0.02,GWP-90
As a replacement for R11 as similar
thermodynamic properties.
Very short atmospheric life but
classified as carcinogen
Retrofit alternative to R11
HFC
Zero ODP as no chlorine atom contains
only Hydrogen and Flurodine
Very small GWP values
No phase out date in Montreal Protocol
R134a and R152 a Very popular
refrigerants
HFC refrigerants are costly refrigerants
R134a
ODP-0, GWP-1300
Used as a substitute for R12 and to a
limited range for R22
Good performance in medium and
high temp application
Toxicity is very low
Not miscible with mineral oil
R152a
ODP-0,GWP-140
R152a is another attractive HFC with
similar properties to R12.
GWP is one order less than HFC134a but it
is slightly flammable.
Also it has lower energy consumption.
Hence the Environmental Protection
Agency of Europe prefers HFC152a to
HFC134a
Hydrocarbon
Very promising non-halogenated organic
compounds
With no ODP and very small GWP values
Their efficiency is slightly better than other
leading alternative refrigerants
They are fully compatible with lubricating
oils conventionally used with CFC12.
Hydrocarbon Refrigerants
Hydrocarbons
Dominant in domestic market like
household refrigerators and freezers
Growing use in very small commercial
systems like car air-conditioning system
Examples:
Slide 42
R290
ODP-0,GWP-3
Compatible with copper.Miscible with mineral oil
Highest latent heat and largest vapour density
A third of original charge only is required when
replacing halocarbons refrigerant in existing
equipment
Energy saving : up to 20% due to lower molecular
mass and vapour pressure
R 600a
ODP-0,GWP-3
Higher boiling point hence lower
evaporator pressure
Discharge temp is lowest
Very good compatibility with mineral
oil
Flammability
Approximate auto ignition
temperatures
R22
630 C
R12
750 C
R134a 740 C
R290
465 C
R600a 470 C
Modifications of Electrical
Equipment
Replaced with solid state equivalents
Sealed to ensure that any sparks do
not come into contact with leaking
gas
Relocated to a position where the
component would not come into
contact with leaking gas
Modifications of Electrical
Equipment
Faulty components.
Poor, corroded, loose, or dirty
electrical connections.
Missing or broken insulation which
could cause arcing/sparks.
Friction sparks, like a metal fan blade
hitting a metal enclosure.
Azeotropic Refrigerants
A stable mixture of two or several
refrigerants whose vapour and liquid
phases retain identical compositions
over a wide range of temperatures.
Examples :
R-500
R152
R-502 : 8.8% R22 and 51.2% R115
R-503 : 40.1% R23 and 59.9% R13
Zeotropic Refrigerants
A zeotropic mixture is one whose
composition in liquid phase differs to that
in vapour phase. Zeotropic refrigerants
therefore do not boil at constant
temperatures unlike azeotropic
refrigerants.
Examples :R404a : R125/143a/134a
(44%,52%,4%)
R407c : R32/125/134a (23%, 25%, 52%)
R410a : R32/125 (50%, 50%)
R413a : R600a/218/134a (3%, 9%, 88%)
Inorganic Refrigerants
Carbon Dioxide
Water
Ammonia
Air
Sulphur dioxide
Carbon Dioxide
Natural production
Production in factories
Used in refrigeration
6 million tons/year
Ammonia as Refrigerant
ODP = 0
GWP = 0
Excellent thermodynamic characteristics: small
molecular mass, large latent heat, large vapour
density and excellent heat transfer characteristics
High critical temperature (132C) : highly efficient
cycles at high condensing temperatures
Its smell causes leaks to be detected and fixed
before reaching dangerous concentration
Relatively Low price
Water
Zero ODP & GWP
Water as refrigerant is used in
absorption system .New developing
technology has created space for it for
use in compression cycles also.
But higher than normal working
pressure in the system can be a factor in
restricted use of water as refrigerant
Application
friendly refrigerant
Domestic refrigeration
Commercial refrigeration
R134a,R152a
R134a,R404A,R407C
R134a,R404A,R507A
NH 3 ,HCs,CO2 **
R410A,R407C
Centralized AC (chillers)
Transport refrigeration
Heat pumps
HFCs used
R134a,R410A,R407C
R134a,R404A
R134a
R134a,R152a,R404A
R407C,R410A
Possible Eco-
CO 2 , HC s
NH 3 ,HCs,CO2, water **
CO 2,
CO 2 ,HCs
NH 3 ,HCs,CO2, water **
Survey Of Refrigerants
Refrigerant
Group
Atmospheri
c life
ODP
GWP
R11
CFC
130
4000
R12
CFC
130
8500
R22
HCFC
15
.05
1500
R134a
HFC
16
1300
R404a
HFC
16
3260
R410a
HFC
16
1720
R507
HFC
130
3300
R717
NH3
R744
CO2
R290
HC
<1
R600a
HC
<1
To Conclude
In the aftermath of the Montreal protocole HFCs
have predominantly replaced CFCs and HCFCs in
RAC equipment.
Due to their high GWP, HFCs are not a good
replacement solution.
The solution are the natural refrigerants :
Ammonia, Hydrocarbons and Carbon dioxide
System need to have low TEWI factor
High efficiency with ammonia and lower power
consumption with hydrocarbons
Environmental Effects of
Refrigerants
Global warming :
Refrigerants directly contributing to global
warming when released to the atmosphere
Indirect contribution based on the energy
consumption of among others the
compressors (CO2 produced by power
stations )
This is the
most widely
used cycle
for
refrigerator
s, A-C
systems,
and heat
pumps.
63
An
ordinary
household
refrigerat
or.
65
INNOVATIVE VAPOR-COMPRESSION
REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
68
Cascading
improves the
COP of a
refrigeration
system.
Some
systems use
three or four
stages of
cascading.
A two-stage cascade refrigeration
system with the same refrigerant in
both stages.
69
Multistage
Compression
Refrigeration
Systems
A two-stage compression
refrigeration system with a flash
chamber.
70
Schematic and T-s diagram for a refrigeratorfreezer unit with one compressor.
71
Liquefaction of Gases
Many important scientific and engineering processes at cryogenic temperatures
(below about 100C) depend on liquefied gases including the separation of
oxygen and nitrogen from air, preparation of liquid propellants for rockets, the
study of material properties at low temperatures, and the study of
superconductivity.
Linde-Hampson
system for liquefying
gases.
72
When there is a
source of
inexpensive
thermal energy at
a temperature of
100 to 200C is
absorption
refrigeration.
Some examples
include
geothermal
energy, solar
energy, and waste
heat from
cogeneration or
process steam
plants, and even
natural gas when
it is at a relatively
low price.
76
78
Summary
79
Introduction
The mechanism used for lowering
or producing low temp. in a body or
a space, whose temp. is already
below the temp. of its surrounding, is
called the refrigeration system.
Here the heat is being generally
pumped from low level to the higher
one & is rejected at high temp.
Refrigeration
The term refrigeration may be
defined as the process of removing
heat from a substance under
controlled conditions.
It also includes the process of
reducing heat & maintaining the
temp. of a body below the general
temp. of its surroundings.
Contd.
In other words the refrigeration
means a continued extraction of heat
from a body whose temp is already
below the temp. of its surroundings.
Refrigeration Cycle
In refrigeration system the heat is
being generally pumped from low
level to higher one & rejected at that
temp.
This rejection of heat from low level
to higher level of temp. can only be
performed with the help of external
work according to second law of
thermodynamics.
Contd.
The total amount of heat being
rejected to the outside body consist
of two parts:- the heat extracted from the body to
be cooled .
- the heat equivalent to the
mechanical work required for
extracting it.
Contd..
Contd.
A refrigerator is a reverse heat
engine run in the reverse direction by
means of external aid.
Every type of refrigeration system
used for producing cold must have
the following four basic units:-
Contd.
Low temp. thermal sink to which the
heat is rejected for cooling the space.
Means of extracting the heat energy
from the sink, raising its level of
temp. before delivering it to heat
receiver.
A receiver is a storage to which the
heat is transferred from the high
temp., high pressure refrigerant.
Contd..
Means of reducing the pressure &
temp. of the refrigerant before it
return to the sink.
The processes of the cycle are
evaporation, compression,
condensation & expansion.
By reversing the heat engine cycle
completely & by changing the
working agent, a refrigeration cycle
is obtained.
Refrigeration Systems
Vapour compression refrigeration
system
Vapour absorption refrigeration
system
Thermo electric refrigeration system
Vapour Compression
Refrigeration
This is the most important system
from the point of commercial &
domestic utility & most practical
form of refrigeration.
The working fluid refrigerant used in
this refrigeration system readily
evaporates & condenses or changes
alternatively between the vapour &
liquid phases without leaving the
refrigerating plant
Contd.
During evaporation it absorbs heat
from the cold body or in condensing
or cooling it rejects heat to the
external hot body .
The heat absorbed from cold body
during evaporation is used as its
latent heat for converting it from
liquid to vapour.
Thus a cooling effect is created in
working fluid.
Contd.
This system of refrigeration thus act as
latent heat pump since its pump its latent
heat from the cold body or brine & rejects
it or deliver it to the external hot body or
the cooling medium.
According to the law of thermodynamics ,
this can be done only on the expenditure
of energy which is supplied to the system
in the form of electrical energy driving the
compressor.
Contd.
The vapour compression cycle is
used in most of the modern
refrigeration systems in large
industrial plants.
The vapour in this cycle is circulated
through the various components of
the system, where it undergoes a
number of changes in its state or
condition.
Contd.
Each cycle of operation consists of
the four fundamental changes of
state or processes: Expansion
Vaporisation
Compression
Condensation
Components of Vapour
Compression Systems
Compressor
The low pressure & temp. refrigerant
from evaporator is drawn into the
compressor through the inlet or suction
valve , where it is compressed to a high
pressure & temp.
The high pressure & temp vapour
refrigerant is discharged into the
condenser through the delivery or
discharge valve.
Condenser
The condenser or the cooler consists of
coils of pipe in which the high pressure &
temp. vapour refrigerant is cooled &
condensed.
The refrigerant while passing through
the condenser, rejects its latent heat to
surrounding condensing medium which is
normally air or water.
Thus hot refrigerant vapour received
from compressor is converted into liquid
form in condenser.
Receiver
The condensed liquid refrigerant
from the condenser is stored in a
vessel, known as receiver, from
where it is supplied to the expansion
valve or refrigerant control valve.
Expansion Valve
The function of this valve is to allow
the liquid refrigerant under high
pressure & temp. to pass at a
controlled rate after reducing its
pressure & temp.
some of liquid refrigerant evaporates
as it passes through the expansion
valve, but the greater portion is
vaporised in the evaporator at the
low pressure & temp.
Evaporator
An evaporator consists of coils of pipes in
which the liquid vapour refrigerant at low
pressure & temp. is evaporated & changed
into vapour refrigerant at low pressure &
temp.
During evaporation process, the liquid
vapour refrigerant absorbs its latent heat
of vaporization from the medium which is
to be cooled.
Advantages
Smaller size for a given refrigerating
capacity
Higher coeff. of performance
Lower power requirements for a
given capacity
Less complexity in both design &
operation
It can be used over large of temp.
Domestic Refrigerator
The application of refrigeration for
domestic purposes are mainly in the
form of domestic refrigerators &
home freezers.
The main purpose of this type of
refrigeration is to provide low temp.
for storage & distribution of foods &
drinks.
Contd.
It represents a significant portion of
the refrigeration industry due to the
use of these units in large number.
For domestic preservation, the
storage is generally short term. The
domestic refrigerators used for the
purposes are usually small in sizes
with rating in ranges from 1/20 to
tonne.
Contd.
The unit is usually self contained and
hermetically sealed.
Due to short term storage the
domestic refrigerator load is
intermittent.
Contd.
The requirement of domestic
refrigerator is that: it should be simple in construction
automatic in action
nominal in initial cost
Contd.
dependable and without any
necessity of expert inspection &
repair.
Non irritant & non toxic refrigerant
should be used.
Generally methylene chloride, freon12, freon -11 are used as
refrigerants.
Contd
The common type of domestic
refrigerator have a cabinet shaped
with compressor motor-fan assembly,
the condensed and receiver fitted in
their basement.
The expansion valve evaporator coils
are exposed in the storage cabinet
with the piping, carrying liquid
refrigerant passing through the body.
Contd.
The heat of the bodies to be cooled is
carried to the evaporator coils by means of
air trapped in the cabinet.
Refrigeration is not only provided with
double walled cabinet packed with
materials having high thermal insulation
such as fibre glass or expanded rubber but
also all around the inside of door flap soft
rubber seal is used which makes rubber air
tight.
Electrical Circuit
Refrigerator is provided with a door push
switch, which closes on opening of
refrigerator and puts the lamp on.
Capacitor start single phase induction
motor is used in open type refrigerators
and split phase induction motor is used in
sealed unit refrigerators.
Electromagnetic relay is provided to
connect auxiliary winding on the start &
disconnect it when the motor picks up the
speed.
Circuit
Contd..
Thermal overload release is provided
to protect the motor from damage
against flow of over current.
Thermostat switch is provided to
control the temp. inside the
refrigerator.
Temp. inside the refrigerator can be
adjusted by means of temp. control
screw.
Contd
To protect the motor against under
voltage use of automatic voltage
regulator is essential since in case of
fall in applied voltage, motor will
draw heavy current to develop the
required torque and will become hot,
thermal overload relay will therefore
repeatedly disconnect and connect
the motor to supply, eventually
burning it out.