INTRODUCTION TO

ANTENNAS

OVERVIEW
Introduction
Radiation pattern, gain, Beamwidth, polarization
Review of basic antenna types
Basics Of Microstrip Antennas
Types Of Feeding Of Microstrip Antennas
Gain And Beamwidth Comparsion Of Different Antennas
Test Equipment

INTRODUCTION TO ANTENNAS
Antennas are key components of any wireless system. An antenna is a

device that transmits and/or receives electromagnetic waves.

Most antennas are resonant devices, which operate efficiently over a

relatively narrow frequency band.

An antenna must be tuned to the same frequency band that the radio

system to which it is connected operates in, otherwise reception

and/or transmission will be impaired.

ANTENNAS
Transmitting Antenna: Any structure designed to efficiently radiate
electromagnetic radiation in a preferred direction is called a transmitting
antenna.
Wires passing an alternating current emit, or radiate, electromagnetic energy.
The shape and size of the current carrying structure determines how much
energy is radiated as well as the direction of radiation.
Receiving Antenna: Any structure designed to efficiently receive
electromagnetic radiation is called a receiving antenna
We also know that an electromagnetic field will induce current in a wire. The shape and size of the
structure determines how efficiently the field is converted into current, or put another way, determines
how well the radiation is captured. The shape and size also determines from which direction the
radiation is preferentially captured.

RADIATION PATTERN
The radiation pattern of an antenna is an electromagnetic wave and it is the

variation of the electric field as a function of angle and has two field
components: an E - field vector and an H- field vector.
Radiation or antenna pattern describes the relative strength of the radiated

field in various directions from the antenna at a constant distance.

The radiation pattern is a reception pattern as well, since it also describes

the receiving properties of the antenna

RADIATION PATTERN
The radiation pattern is three-dimensional, but it is difficult to display the three-dimensional

radiation pattern in a meaningful manner.

Often radiation patterns measured are a slice of the three-dimensional pattern, resulting in a

two-dimensional radiation pattern which can be displayed easily on a screen or piece of paper.

3-D pattern

Two 2-D patterns

RADIATION PATTERN
A polar plot

It is clear in Figure that in some very specific

directions there are zeros, or nulls, in the pattern
indicating no radiation.
The protuberances between the nulls are referred to as
lobes, and the main, or major, lobe is in the direction of
maximum radiation.
There are also side lobes and back lobes. These other
lobes divert power away from the main beam and are
desired as small as possible.

A rectangular plot

RADIATION PATTERN
The radiation of many antennas shows a pattern of maxima or "lobes" at various angles,

separated by nulls", angles where the radiation falls to zero.

This is because the radio waves emitted by different parts of the antenna typically interfere,

causing maxima at angles where the radio waves arrive at distant points in phase, and zero
radiation at other angles where the radio waves arrive out of phase.
Main Lobe (major lobe, main beam) - radiation lobe in the direction of maximum radiation.
Minor Lobe - any radiation lobe other than the main lobe.
Side Lobe - a radiation lobe in any direction other than the direction(s) of intended

radiation.

ANTENNA GAIN & DIRECTIVITY

Gain is a parameter which measures the degree of directivity of the antenna's radiation

pattern. A high-gain antenna will preferentially radiate in a particular direction.

Specifically, the antenna gain, or power gain of an antenna is defined as the ratio of the

intensity (power per unit surface) radiated by the

antenna in the direction of its maximum output, at an
arbitrary distance, divided by the intensity radiated
at the same distance by a hypothetical isotropic antenna.
The directive gain,, of an antenna is the ratio of the

normalized power in a particular direction to the

average normalized power

BEAM-WIDTH

Beam-width of an antenna is defined as

angular separation between the two half

power points on power density radiation
pattern OR
Angular separation between two 3dB
down points on the field strength of
radiation pattern
It is expressed in degrees

POLARIZATION
The polarization of an antenna is the orientation of the electric field (E-

plane) of the radio wave with respect to the Earth's surface and is
determined by the physical structure of the antenna and by its orientation.
A simple straight wire antenna will have one polarization when mounted
vertically, and a different polarization when mounted horizontally.
Reflections generally affect polarization. For radio waves the most
important reflector is the ionosphere - signals which reflect from it will
have their polarization changed.

POLARIZATION
Types of polarization
Linear
Circular
Ellipse

LHC
Ex = cos (wt)

Ex = cos (wt)

Ex = cos (wt)

Ex = cos (wt)

Ey = cos (wt)

Ey = cos (wt+pi/4)

Ey = -sin (wt)

Ey = cos (wt+3pi/4)

RHC
Ex = cos (wt)

Ex = cos (wt)

Ey = -cos (wt+pi/4)

Ey = sin (wt)

TYPES OF ANTENNA
Types of
simple
antennas are:
Half Wave
dipole

The folded
dipole

The Loop
antennas

The
helical
antenna

Yagi-Uda
Antenna

The Horn
Antenna

Microstrip
Antenna

HALF WAVE DIPOLE ANTENNA

The half-wave dipole antenna is just a special case of the dipole antenna.
Half-wave term means that the length of this dipole antenna is equal to a half-

wavelength at the frequency of operation.

The dipole antenna, is the basis for most antenna designs, is a balanced component,
with equal but opposite voltages and currents applied at its two terminals through a
balanced transmission line.

THE FOLDED DIPOLE

The folded dipole is the same length as a

standard dipole, but is made with two parallel

conductors, joined at both ends and separated by
a distance that is short compared with the length
of the antenna.
Folded antenna is a single antenna but it consists
of two elements.
First element is fed directly while second one is
coupled inductively at its end.

LOOP ANTENNAS
A loop antenna is a radio antenna consisting of a

loop of wire with its ends connected to a balanced

transmission line
It is a single turn coil carrying RF current through it.
The dimensions of coil are smaller than the
wavelength hence current flowing through the coil
has same phase.
Small loops have a poor efficiency and are mainly
used as receiving antennas at low frequencies.
Except for car radios, almost every AM broadcast
receiver sold has such an antenna built inside of it or
directly attached to it.

THE HELICAL ANTENNA

Several types of antennas are classified as

helical.
The antenna in the sketch has its
maximum radiation along its long axis.
A quarter-wave monopole can be
shortened and wound into a helix
common in antennas used with many
handheld transceivers.

YAGI-UDA ANTENNA
The Yagi-Uda Antenna is a directional antenna consisting of a driven

element (typically a dipole or folded dipole) and additional parasitic

elements (usually a so-called reflector and one or more directors).
All the elements are arranged collinearly and close together.
The reflector element is slightly longer (typically 5% longer) than the

driven dipole, whereas the so-called directors are a little bit shorter.
The design achieves a very substantial increase in the antenna's

directionality and gain compared to a simple dipole.

YAGI-UDA ANTENNA
Typical spacing between elements vary from about 1/10 to 1/4 of a

wavelength, depending on the specific design.

The elements are usually parallel in one plane.
By adjusting distance between adjacent directors it is possible to reduce
back lobe.

HORN ANTENNA
The horn antenna derives its name from the characteristic flared

appearance. The flared portion can be square, rectangular,

cylindrical or conical.
The direction of maximum radiation corresponds with the axis of

the horn. It is easily fed with a waveguide, but can be fed with a
coaxial cable and a proper transition.
Horn antennas are commonly used as the active element in a dish

antenna. The horn is pointed toward the center of the dish

reflector.
The use of a horn, rather than a dipole antenna or any other type

of antenna, at the focal point of the dish minimizes loss of energy

around the edges of the dish reflector.

MICROSTRIP ANTENNAS
The Microstrip Patch Antenna is a single-layer design which

consists generally of four parts (patch, ground plane, substrate,

and the feeding part). Patch antenna can be classified as single
element resonant antenna.
The patch is a very thin (t<< , where is the free space

wavelength) radiating metal strip (or array of strips) located on

one side of a thin non conducting substrate, the ground plane is
the same metal located on the other side of the substrate.
The metallic patch is normally made of thin copper foil plated

with a corrosion resistive metal, such as gold, tin, or nickel.

OVERVIEW OF MICROSTRIP ANTENNAS

Common Shapes

Rectangular

Square

Elliptical

Circular

Annular ring

Triangular

OVERVIEW OF MICROSTRIP ANTENNAS

The most popular shape is the rectangular and circular patch. The substrate

layer thickness is 0.010.05 of free-space wavelength . It is used primarily to

provide proper spacing and mechanical support between the patch and its
ground plane.
It is also often used with high dielectric-constant material to load the patch

and reduce its size.

The substrate material should be low in insertion loss with a loss tangent of

less than 0.005.

ADVANTAGES OF MICROSTRIP ANTENNAS

Low profile (can even be conformal, i.e. flexible to conform to a surface).
Easy to fabricate (use etching and photolithography).
Easy to feed (coaxial cable, microstrip line, etc.).
Easy to use in an array or incorporate with other microstrip circuit elements.
Patterns are somewhat hemispherical, with a moderate directivity (about 6-8 dB

is typical).

DISADVANTAGES OF MICROSTRIP ANTENNAS

Low bandwidth (but can be improved by a variety of techniques). Bandwidths

of a few percent are typical. Bandwidth is roughly proportional to the substrate

thickness and inversely proportional to the substrate permittivity.
Efficiency may be lower than with other antennas. Efficiency is limited by

conductor and dielectric losses, and by surface-wave loss.

Only used at microwave frequencies and above (the substrate becomes too large

at lower frequencies).
Cannot handle extremely large amounts of power (dielectric breakdown).

APPLICATIONS OF MICROSTRIP ANTENNAS

TYPES OF FEEDING
Types Of Feeding Of Microstrip Antenna
Coaxial feed
Inset feed
Proximity Coupled Feed
Gap Coupled Feed
Aperture Coupled Feed

COAXIAL FEED
z

A feed along the

centerline is the most
common (minimizes
higher-order modes and
cross-pol).

Surface current

W
Feed at (x0, y0)

COAXIAL FEED
Advantages

Simple

Directly compatible with coaxial cables

Easy to obtain input match by adjusting feed position

Disadvantages

Significant probe (feed) radiation for thicker substrates

Significant probe inductance for thicker substrates (limits bandwidth)
Not easily compatible with arrays

INSET FEED
Advantages:

Simple
Allows for planar feeding
Easy to use with arrays
Easy to obtain input match

Disadvantages:

Significant line radiation for thicker substrates

For deep notches, patch current and radiation pattern
may show distortion

Microstrip line

PROXIMITY-COUPLED FEED
(ELECTROMAGNETICALLY-COUPLED FEED)
Advantages:
Allows for planar feeding
Less line radiation compared to microstrip feed
Can allow for higher bandwidth (no probe
inductance, so substrate can be thicker)

Disadvantages:
Requires multilayer fabrication
Alignment is important for input match

Top view

Microstrip
line

Patch
Microstrip line

GAP-COUPLED FEED
Advantages:
Allows for planar feeding
Can allow for a match even with high edge
impedances, where a notch might be too large (e.g.,
when using high permittivity)

Patch

Top view

Disadvantages:
Requires accurate gap fabrication
Requires full-wave design

Gap

Patch

Microstrip line

Microstrip
line

APERTURE-COUPLED PATCH (ACP)

Advantages:
Allows for planar feeding
Feed-line radiation is isolated from patch radiation
Higher bandwidth is possible since probe inductance is
eliminated (allowing for a thick substrate), and also a doubleresonance can be created
Allows for use of different substrates to optimize antenna and
feed-circuit performance

Slot

Top view

Microstrip
line

Patch

Disadvantages:
Requires multilayer fabrication
Alignment is important for input match

Slot
Microstrip line

TYPICAL GAIN AND BEAM WIDTH

Name

Gain (over
isotropic)

Beamwidth -3
dB

0 dB

360

2.14 dB

55

Loop

3.14 dB

200

Yagi

7.14 dB

25

Helical

10.1 dB

30

Horn

15 dB

15

Isotropic
Dipole

Shape

Radiation Pattern

TEST EQUIPMENT
THE ANECHOIC CHAMBER
The anechoic chamber is used to set up antennas in a location

that is free from reflections in order to evaluate them

REFRENCES

Griffiths H & Smith BL (ed.): Modern antennas; Chapman & Hall, 1998
Johnson RC: Antenna Engineering Handbook McGraw-Hill Book Co. 1993
Kraus JD: Antennas, McGraw-Hill Book Co. 1998
Scoughton TE: Antenna Basics Tutorial; Microwave Journal Jan. 1998, p. 186-191
Stutzman WL, Thiele GA: Antenna Theory and Design JWiley &Sons, 1981

C. A. Balanis, Antenna Theory: Analysis and Design, 2nd ed. New York: Wiley, 1997.
K. L. Wong, Design of Nonplanar Microstrip Antennas and Transmission Lines, Wiley, New

York, 1999.