Electronic Instrumentation

Experiment 2

* Part A: Intro to Transfer Functions and AC Sweeps

* Part B: Phasors, Transfer Functions and Filters
* Part C: Using Transfer Functions and RLC Circuits
* Part D: Equivalent Impedance and DC Sweeps

Part A
Introduction to Transfer
Functions and Phasors
Complex Polar Coordinates
Complex Impedance (Z)
AC Sweeps

Transfer Functions
Vout
H
Vin

The transfer function describes the

behavior of a circuit at Vout for all
possible Vin.

Simple Example
Vout

Vout

R 2 R3
Vin *
R1 R 2 R3

2k 3k
Vin *
1k 2k 3k
Vout 5
H

Vin 6

if Vin (t ) 6V sin( 2kt ) 12V

2

then Vout (t ) 5V sin( 2kt ) 10V

2

More Complicated Example

What is H now?

H now depends upon the input frequency ( =

2f) because the capacitor and inductor make
the voltages change with the change in current.

How do we model H?
We want a way to combine the effect of
the components in terms of their
influence on the amplitude and the
phase.
We can only do this because the signals
are sinusoids

cycle in time
derivatives and integrals are just phase
shifts and amplitude changes

We will define Phasors

V f ( A, )

A phasor is a function of the amplitude and

phase of a sinusoidal signal
Phasors allow us to manipulate sinusoids in
terms of amplitude and phase changes.
Phasors are based on complex polar
coordinates.
Using phasors and complex numbers we will
be able to find transfer functions for circuits.

Review of Polar Coordinates

point P is at
( rpcosp , rpsinp )

yP

P tan
xP
1

rP x y
2
P

2
P

Review of Complex Numbers

j 1
j j 1
1
j
j

zp is a single number represented by two numbers

zp has a real part (xp) and an imaginary part (yp)

Complex Polar Coordinates

z = x+jy where x is A cos and y is A sin

t cycles once around the origin once for each cycle of

the sinusoidal wave (=2f)

Now we can define Phasors

if V (t ) A cos( t ) , then let

V A cos( t ) jA sin( t )

or simply , V A cos jA sin

(t is common to each term, so it is dropped .)

The real part is our signal.

The two parts allow us to determine the
influence of the phase and amplitude changes
mathematically.
After we manipulate the numbers, we discard
the imaginary part.

The V=IR of Phasors

V IZ

The influence of each component is

given by Z, its complex impedance
Once we have Z, we can use phasors to
analyze circuits in much the same way
that we analyze resistive circuits
except we will be using the complex
polar representation.

Magnitude and Phase

V A cos j A sin x jy

2
2
V x y A magnitude of V

1 y
V tan
x

phase of V

Phasors have a magnitude and a phase

derived from polar coordinates rules.

Influence of Resistor on Circuit

VR I R R

if I R (t ) A sin(t )
then VR (t ) R * A sin(t )
Resistor modifies the amplitude of the
signal by R
Resistor has no effect on the phase

Influence of Inductor on Circuit

dI L
VL L
dt

Note:
cos=sin(+/2)

if I L (t ) A sin(t )
then VL (t ) L * A cos(t )

or VL (t ) L * A sin(t )
2

Inductor modifies the amplitude of the

signal by L
Inductor shifts the phase by +/2

Influence of Capacitor on Circuit

1
VC I C dt
C

if I C (t ) A sin(t )

1
1
then VC (t )
* A cos(t )
* A cos(t )
C
C
1

or VC (t )
* A sin(t )
* A sin(t )
C
2
C
2

Capacitor modifies the amplitude of the

signal by 1/C
Capacitor shifts the phase by -/2

Understanding the influence of Phase

real : if y 0 and x 0

0
then V tan 1 0
x
j:
if x 0 and y 0

j:

1 y
V tan
x

1 y
90
then V tan
2
0
if x 0 and y 0

1 y
90
then V tan
2
0
real : if y 0 and x 0

0
then V tan 1 (or )
x
180


Complex Impedance V I Z

Z defines the influence of a component

on the amplitude and phase of a circuit
Resistors:

ZR = R

change the amplitude by R

Capacitors: ZC=1/jC
change the amplitude by 1/C
shift the phase -90 (1/j=-j)

Inductors: ZL=jL
change the amplitude by L
shift the phase +90 (j)

AC Sweeps

AC Source
sweeps from
1Hz to 10K Hz

1.0V

1.0V

1.0V

0V

0V

0V

-1.0V
200ms
250ms
300ms
V(R1:2)
V(C1:1)
Time

350ms

Transient at 10 Hz

400ms

-1.0V
20ms
25ms
30ms
V(R1:2)
V(C1:1)
Time

35ms

Transient at 100 Hz

40ms

-1.0V
2.0ms
2.5ms
3.0ms
V(R1:2)
V(C1:1)
Time

3.5ms

Transient at 1k Hz

4.0ms

Notes on Logarithmic Scales

Capture/PSpice Notes

Showing the real and imaginary part of the signal

in Capture: PSpice->Markers->Advanced
->Real Part of Voltage
->Imaginary Part of Voltage

in PSpice: Add Trace

real part: R( )
imaginary part: IMG( )

Showing the phase of the signal

in Capture:
PSpice->Markers->Advanced->Phase of Voltage

in PSPice: Add Trace

phase: P( )

Part B
Phasors
Complex Transfer Functions
Filters

Definition of a Phasor
if V (t ) A cos( t ) , then let

V A cos jA sin
The real part is our signal.
The two parts allow us to determine the
influence of the phase and amplitude
changes mathematically.
After we manipulate the numbers, we
discard the imaginary part.

Phasor References

http://ccrma-www.stanford.edu/~jos/filters
/Phasor_Notation.html

http://www.ligo.caltech.edu/~vsanni/ph3/E
xpACCircuits/ACCircuits.pdf

http://ptolemy.eecs.berkeley.edu/eecs20/be
rkeley/phasors/demo/phasors.html

Phasor Applet

Adding Phasors & Other Applets

Magnitude and Phase

V A cos j A sin x jy

2
2
V x y A magnitude of V

1 y
V tan
x

phase of V

Phasors have a magnitude and a phase

derived from polar coordinates rules.

Eulers Formula

cos j sin

if z x jy r cos jr sin re j
z1 r 1e j1 r1 j (1 2 )
then z3
e
j 2
z 2 r2 e
r2
r1
therefore , r3
r2

and z 4 z1 z 2 r 1e

and 3 1 2
j 1

therefore , r4 r1 r2

r2 e

j 2

r1 r2 e

j (1 2 )

and 4 1 2

Manipulating Phasors (1)

j ( t )
V A cos( t ) j sin( t ) Ae

V1 A1e j ( t 1 ) A1 e jt e j1 A1 j ( )
1 2
X3

e
j ( t 2 )
2
j t
V2 A2 e
A2 e e
A2

A1
therefore , X 3
and X 3 1 2
A2

Note t is eliminated by the ratio

This gives the phase change between
signal 1 and signal 2

Manipulating Phasors (2)

V1 x1 jy1 V2 x2 jy2

V3 x3 jy3

2
2

x1 y1
V1
X3
2
2
V2
x2 y 2

1 y1
1 y 2

X 3 V1 V2 tan tan
x1
x2

Complex Transfer Functions

Vout ( j )
H ( j )
Vin ( j )

If we use phasors, we can define H for

all circuits in this way.
If we use complex impedances, we can
combine all components the way we
combine resistors.
H and V are now functions of j and


Complex Impedance V I Z

Z defines the influence of a component

on the amplitude and phase of a circuit
Resistors: ZR = R
Capacitors: ZC=1/jC
Inductors: ZL=jL

We can use the rules for resistors to

analyze circuits with capacitors and
inductors if we use phasors and complex
impedance.

Simple Example
ZR R
1
ZC
j C

Vout ( j )
ZC I
ZC

H ( j )

Vin ( j ) Z R Z C I Z R Z C
1

j C
j C
H ( j )

1
j C
R
j C

H ( j )

1
j RC 1

Simple Example (continued)

H ( j )
H ( j )

1 j0
1 j RC

1
j RC 1

12 0 2
1 ( RC )
2

1
1 ( RC ) 2

H ( j ) (1 j 0) (1 j RC )
0
1 RC
1
H ( j ) tan tan
tan ( RC )
1
1
1

H ( j )

1
1 ( RC )

H ( j ) tan 1 ( RC )

High and Low Pass Filters

1.0

High Pass Filter

c=2fc

H = 0 at 0

0.5

H = 1 at
0
1.0Hz
100Hz
V1(R1) / V(C1:2)

10KHz
Frequency

fc

1.0MHz

100MHz

1.0

at c
Low Pass Filter

c=2fc

H = 1 at 0

0.5

H = 0 at
0
1.0Hz
100Hz
V(C1:2) / V(R1:2)

10KHz
Frequency

fc

1.0MHz

100MHz

at c

Corner Frequency

The corner frequency of an RC or RL circuit tells

us where it transitions from low to high or visa
versa.
1
We define it as the place where H ( j c )

1
For RC circuits: c
RC
R
For RL circuits: c
L

Corner Frequency of our

example

1
H ( j )
1 j RC
1
H ( j )
2

H ( j )

1
1 ( RC ) 2

2 1 RC

1
2

1
2

2
RC

1
1

1 ( RC ) 2 2

1
c
RC

H(j), c, and filters

We can use the transfer function, H(j), and the

corner frequency, c, to easily determine the
characteristics of a filter.
If we consider the behavior of the transfer
function as approaches 0 and infinity and
look for when H nears 0 and 1, we can identify
high and low pass filters.
The corner frequency gives us the point where
the filter changes:
c
fc
2

Taking limits
a2 2 a1 a0
H ( j )
b2 2 b1 b0

At low frequencies, (ie. =10-3), lowest

power of dominates
a210 6 a110 3 a010 0 a0
H ( j )

6
3
0
b210 b110 b010
b0

At high frequencies (ie. =10+3), highest

power of dominates
a210 6 a110 3 a0100 a2
H ( j )

6
3
0
b210 b110 b010
b2

Taking limits -- Example

9 2 15
H ( j )
3 2 2 5

At low frequencies, (lowest power)

15
H LO ( j )
3
5

At high frequencies, (highest power)

9 2
H HI ( j )
3
2
3

Our example at low frequencies

1
H ( j )
1 j RC
1
H LOW ( j )
1
1 0
H LOW ( j ) as 0 1 1
0
H LOW ( j ) tan 0 (on x axis )
1
1

Our example at high frequencies

1
H ( j )
1 j RC
1
H HIGH ( j )
j RC
1
1
H HIGH ( j ) as
0
j RC

0
1 RC
H HIGH ( j ) tan tan
0
2
2
1
0
1

Our example is a low pass filter

H LOW 1

H HIGH 0

c
1
fc

2 2 RC
1.0

What about the phase?

0.5

0
1.0Hz
100Hz
V(C1:2) / V(R1:2)

10KHz
Frequency

1.0MHz

100MHz

Our example has a phase shift

1.0

H LOW 1
H HIGH 0

0.5
SEL>>
0
0d

V(R1:2) / V(V1:+)

H LOW ( j ) 0
H HIGH ( j ) 90

-50d

-100d
1.0Hz
VP(C1:2)

10KHz
Frequency

100MHz

Part C
Using Transfer Functions
Capacitor Impedance Proof
More Filters
Transfer Functions of RLC Circuits

Using H to find Vout

j out jt
j out
Vout Aout e e
Aout e
H ( j )

jin jt
jin
Ain e e
Vin
Ain e

Aout e

j out

Aout e

j out

H ( j ) Ain e
H ( j ) e

Aout H ( j ) Ain

jin

jH ( j )

Ain e

jin

out H ( j ) in

Simple Example (with numbers)

C 1 F

R 1k

Vin (t ) 2V cos(2k t )
4

H ( j )
H ( j )

1
1
1

j RC 1 j 2k 1k1 1 2j 1

12
1 (2 ) 2

0.157

2
H ( j ) 0 tan
1.41
1
1

Vout (t ) 0.157 * 2V cos(2k t 0.785 1.41)

Vout (t ) 0.314V cos(2k t 0.625)

Capacitor Impedance Proof

Prove:

1
ZC
j C

dV (t )
I C (t ) C C
and VC (t ) A cos( t )
dt

VC ( j ) A cos( t ) jA sin( t ) Ae j ( t )

dVC ( j ) dAe j ( t )
j ( t )

Aje
j VC ( j )
dt
dt

dVC ( j )
dVC (t )
Re
jA cos( t ) j VC (t )
dt
dt

I C (t ) C

dVC (t )
1
Cj VC (t ) VC (t )
I C (t )
dt
j C

Band Filters
Band Pass Filter

1.0

H = 0 at 0
0.5

H = 0 at

0
1.0Hz
100Hz
V(R1:1)/ V(R1:2)

10KHz

f0

1.0MHz

100MHz

at 0=2f0

Frequency

1.0

Band Reject Filter

H = 1 at 0

0.5

H = 1 at
0
1.0Hz
V(L1:1) /

100Hz
V(V1:+)

10KHz

f0

Frequency

1.0MHz

100MHz

at 0 =2f0

Resonant Frequency

The resonant frequency of an RLC circuit tells

us where it reaches a maximum or minimum.
This can define the center of the band (on a band
filter) or the location of the transition (on a high
or low pass filter).
The equation for the resonant frequency of an
RLC circuit is:

1
LC

Another Example
Z R R Z L j L
1
ZC
j C
H ( j )

1
j C
1
R j L
j C

j RC j 2 2 LC 1

1
H ( j )
(1 2 LC ) j RC

At Very Low Frequencies

1
H LOW ( j ) 1
1
H LOW ( j ) 0 1

H LOW ( j ) 0

At Very High Frequencies

1
H HIGH ( j )
2 LC
1
H HIGH ( j )
0

H HIGH ( j ) or

At the Resonant Frequency

H ( j )

1
(1 2 LC ) j RC

1
LC

H ( j 0 )
(1

1
LC )
LC

LC
H ( j 0 ) j
RC
LC
H ( j 0 )
RC

H ( j 0 )
2

1
LC

RC

f0

1
2 LC

1
RC
(1 1) j

LC

if L=1mH, C=0.1uF and R=100

krad/secfkHz

H radians

Our example is a low pass filter

0d

Phase

= 0 at 0

-100d

= - at

SEL>>
-200d
p(V(C1:1)/V(L1:1))
1.2

Magnitude

0.8

= 1 at 0

0.4

= 0 at

0
1.0Hz
100Hz
V(C1:1)/V(L1:1)

10KHz

1.0MHz

Frequency

Actual circuit resonance is only at the theoretical

resonant frequency, f0, when there is no resistance.

fkHz

Part D
Equivalent Impedance
Transfer Functions of More
Complex Circuits

Equivalent Impedance

Even though this filter has parallel components, we can

still handle it.
We can combine complex impedances like resistors to
find the equivalent impedance of the components
combined.

Equivalent Impedance

1
Z Z
j L
j L
j C
L C
2 2

2
1
Z L ZC
j

LC

1
1

LC
j L
j C
j L

Z CL

Determine H
Z CL

j L

1 2 LC

j L
2
1

LC
H ( j )
j L
R
1 2 LC

Z CL
H ( j )
R Z CL
1 2 LC
multiply by
1 2 LC

j L
H ( j )
R(1 2 LC ) j L

At Very Low Frequencies

j L
H LOW ( j )
R
H LOW ( j ) 0 0

H LOW ( j )
2

At Very High Frequencies

j L
j
H HIGH ( j )

2
LRC RC
H HIGH ( j )

H HIGH ( j )
2

1
0

At the Resonant Frequency

1
LC

H ( j 0 )
R(1

1
L
LC

LC ) j
LC

H ( j 0 ) 1

1
L
LC

H ( j 0 ) 0

Our example is a band pass filter

Magnitude

1.0

= 0 at 0

0.5

0
100d

H=1 at
= 0 at

V1(R1) / V(V1:+)

Phase
= 90 at 0

0d
SEL>>
-100d
1.0Hz
VP(R1:1)

= 0 at
10KHz
Frequency

100MHz

= - at