10651613

Principles of Reservoir
Engineering
Petroleum Professor
Collins
Nwaneri
Introduction
What is a Reservoir?
- It is a formation of one or more rock formations
that contains liquid and/or gaseous
hydrocarbons.
- It is mostly of sedimentary rock origin, with few
exceptions.
- Reservoir rocks are porous and permeable; and
bounded by impermeable barriers which trap
hydrocarbons.
- Vertical arrangement of fluids in a reservoir is
governed by gravitational forces i.e. Gas-OilWater.
Introduction
A reservoir is also defined as an invisible and
complex physical system (porous medium) that
must be thoroughly analyzed for vital information.
What is Reservoir Engineering?

- It starts with the discovery of a productive reservoir
and aims to optimize hydrocarbon recovery.
- The optimization of hydrocarbon recovery process
starts from an initial reservoir development project
for a field and a reservoir study that continues
throughout the life of the field to derive information
required for optimal production from the reservoir.
Introduction
The following must be estimated from reservoirs, with the aim
of optimal profitability for a given project.
1. Hydrocarbon (Oil and/or gas) in place.
2. Recoverable reserves (estimated on the basis of several
alternative production methods).
3. Well production potential (Initial productivity, and changes).
. Reservoir engineering can involve the use of partial data,
furnished by wells and therefore is incomplete and insufficient.
-. This data is extrapolated over an extended area to compile a
synthetic image of the reservoir.
-. Fairly reliable production forecast can be made from this
reservoir image in the near future and much less for a distant
future.
-. The forecast are then used to make an optimum development
scheme.
Introduction
Below is a diagram that shows the
different steps in reservoir
engineering. (Fig. 1)
Introduction
Reservoir Image:
- This is defined when the forms, boundaries,
internal architecture (heterogeneities), and
distribution and volumes of fluids contained in a
reservoir are known or at least, to start with
approximated.
The methods used to define a reservoir image
are based on petroleum geology and geophysics.
The following techniques are used in drawing up
a reservoir image:
1. Direct analysis: Core and PVT analysis of fluids
(pressure, volume, temperature). The
measurements are done in a laboratory.
Introduction
2. Indirect analysis: Well logging. (Recorded during
drilling and production to obtain vital data on
lithology, porosity and fluid saturations.
Note: Indirect analysis has a larger surface area of
investigation compared to core analysis (direct
analysis).
Well Characteristics:
- A well production potential is another way to assess
the value of a discovered reservoir.
Well testing is used to asses the production potential
of a reservoir and it involves the measurement of:
Surface flow rates; and surface and downhole fluid
pressures.
Introduction
Well testing can also be used to get
reservoir information such as:
average permeability. (up to several
hundred meters around a well). In
addition, different layers, fractured
formations or barriers may be found
in a reservoir.
Note: The later test above can help in
the selection of the right well
completion procedure for production.
Introduction
Recovery Mechanisms:
- Fluid withdrawal from wells lowers the pressure of
the remaining fluids in a reservoir.
- The relative permeability that breaks down flow
capacities between fluids (oil/gas/water) as a
function of saturation helps generalize a simple one
phase flow condition compared to complex
multiphase flow conditions.
- The knowledge of fluids in a reservoir and its
heterogeneities helps to determine the mechanism
that causes fluid displacement towards wells by
natural drive (primary recovery).
Introduction
Recovery rates from wells depends
on the type of reservoir and fluids.
Recovery rate can be from as
average of 25% oil or as high as 75%
or more for gas of the reservoir
volume in place.
Reserves means the recoverable
volumes that appears to be
producible.
Reserves = Volumes in place x
Introduction
Secondary or artificial recovery methods are used if
a reservoirs primary recovery (natural drive) does
not allow for good oil production or to accelerate
production.
- This methods can consist of water injection or use of
associated gas (gas injection or gas lift).
Improved or enhanced oil recovery can be used, if
profitable, to further produce the oil left in the
reservoir. This can be after the application of
secondary recovery, since the recovery is rarely
above 40%.
- This methods include CO2 injection or addition of
chemicals to water, and thermal methods (i.e.
steam injection or in-situ injection) for heavy oils.
Introduction
See the Dig. On the Mechanism of primary
recovery. (Fig. 2)
Introduction
Reservoir studies characterizes:
1. A reservoir image. (The Volume in place)

2. A well potential. (The Productivity)
3. The recovery mechanisms. (Recoverable
from reserves)
- Based on the information above a
schematic reservoir model is obtained that
represents the synthesis of data and
knowledge of each reservoir.
Introduction
Uncertainties:
- Involves the concept of using new approaches
in the analysis and use of small data from large
data set, which represents an infinitesimal
portion of an actual reservoir space.
- Possible margins in errors in oil and gas
volume in place (N and G); and oil and gas
production forecasts (Np and Gp)
consequences must be established to account
in the uncertainties.
Introduction
Simulation of Reservoir
Production:
- Involves the use of computer that
allows a much more accurate
reservoir simulation by discretization
of a reservoir in space and time.
- This simulation model integrates
specific reservoir data and laws
governing flow in porous medium to
form a complex reservoir numerical
Introduction
Development of a Project, Optimization:
- Development plans such as: number of wells, location,
injection, e.tc on simulation models are compared.
- Initial choices takes account of related techniques, such
as well and surface production and economic data.
- The forecast helps assess probable future production,
which leads to anticipated income and it is compared to
capital investments i.e. drilling, completion etc.., and
operating cost. At the end the configuration with the best
rate of return is chosen.
- Reservoir studies involve three phases in this order:
Analytical; synthesis and forecasting.
- Each phase can be repeated as a new well is drilled,
during development phase and throughout the reservoir
life.
Introduction
A Reservoir studies sample. (Fig. 3)
Introduction
The Place of Reservoir Engineering in
Production:
- After a well is discovered operations

go from exploration function to
production function.
See the diagram in the next slide that
shows reservoir engineering
applications from exploration to
development phases : (Fig:4)
Introduction
Fig.4
19
Reservoir Geology and

Geophysics
Goals:
Reservoir Image (Geological Model)

- A Reservoir Image is developed when the forms,
boundaries, internal architecture (heterogeneities),
distribution and volumes of fluids contained in a
reservoir are known or to start with, approximated.
- The basic parameters used to draw up a reservoir
image is shown in Fig 5.
- The techniques to get the information in Fig. 5 are
mainly:
1. Direct Method: Core analysis and PVT analysis of
fluids.
2. Indirect Method: Well logging (information such as
Lithology, porosity and fluid saturation are obtained)

Geophysics
Fig.
5

Other methodsGeophysics
used to describe a reservoir image are:
1. Seismic surveys: Gives the reservoir form, faults and
occasional variations in facies and fluid boundaries.
2. Sedimentology: Defines the nature of depositions from
the analysis of cores, cuttings and logs.
3. Chemical measurements: used for mineralogical
composition, percentage of organic matter, and the
hydrocarbon family.
4. Tectonics or microtectonics: used in detailed
description of fractures from core analyses, overall
surface studies, and aerial and satellite photographs.
5. Production data: Used to determine flowrates,
Interference between wells, pressure buildup,
temperatures, type and specific gravities of fluids in
bottom hole conditions, e.tc.

Geophysics
The Reservoir Image (Geologic model) is used to:

1. Calculate the volumes in place of a discovery.
(Enhance the reservoir value)
2. Identify probable well locations for development.
3. Provide static details that are introduced into the
simulation models. (Used for production forecast and
determine the ideal development method)
The results from the geological model are illustrated by:
2. Vertical profiles i.e. composite well logs.
3. Correlation cross-sections and facies cross-sections.
(See Fig. 6. - Correlation between wells)
3. Isobaths, isopach (same thickness), isofacies and
isopercentage map, especially h x and h x K, which
helps to characterize the reservoir value.

Geophysics
Fig. 6

Geophysics
NOTE: Geological models are not fixed.
They are updated continually based
on data gathered throughout the
lifetime of the field.

Geophysics
Hydrocarbon Generation and Migration:
Generation:
Hydrocarbons originate in the organic matter
contained in sediments.
Some deposited sediments are broken by oxidation
and the remaining part contains Kerogen.
The Kerogens in the buried sediments are
transformed into hydrocarbons by thermal cracking.
Kerogen is converted to oil at above 50 to 70 deg. C
At 120 to 150 deg. C Oil goes from wet to dry gas.
Oil window is between the temperatures above and
can correspond to burial depths between 1000 and
3500 meter. See Fig 7.

Geophysics
Fig. 7

Geophysics
Sources rocks are
mainly shale and sometimes carbonates.
Oil potential of source rocks are analyzed by pyrolysis at
increasing temperature of a sample of ground rock. (Rock Eval
Method)
Allows for source rock identification during drilling.
Migration:
Hydrocarbons in source rocks are generally expelled. (Towards
low pressure zones)
The source rock (with respect to shale) are permeable at the
time of migration.
The two types of hydrocarbon migration are:
1. Primary migration:
- Hydrocarbon movement is from a source rock to a more
porous adjacent environment.
-. The hydrocarbon migration that is caused by forces associated
with burial and compaction.

Geophysics
2. Secondary Migration:
- Hydrocarbon movement is within the
reservoir from a nearby source rock.
- Hydrocarbon movement is normally
upwards within one or two reservoirs
through faults, fracture zones etc..
- Hydrocarbon movement can be due to
gravity or/and capillarity effect between
Oil, Gas and Water. See Fig 8( different
hydrocarbon upward movement types)

Geophysics
Fig:8

Geophysics
Reservoirs
Definitions:
A reservoir is a porous and permeable subsoil
formation that contains hydrocarbons (Oil and/or
gas).
It is surrounded by impermeable rocks and often by
aquifer barrier.
Has only one natural pressure system.
Reservoirs have lithology layers.
They consist of one or more superimposed or lateral
nearby porous pools, which may contain oil, gas or
both fluids superimposed.

Geophysics
Reservoir Rocks:
- Mainly sedimentary rocks (sandstone and/or carbonates). (99% of
total sedimentary rocks)
Sandstone Reservoirs:
- The most type of reservoir that accounts for about 80% of
reservoirs and 60% of oil reserves.
- Examples sandstone, shaly sandstone, carbonate sandstone, e.tc.
Carbonate Reservoirs:
Carbonate rocks are formed by:
1. Detrital: Debris from grains of limestone, shells, e.tc.
2. Constructed: of reef type
3. Chemicals: precipitation of bicarbonate and originating in marine
muds.
-. Examples are limestone, dolomite, shaly carbonates.
-. Others are Chalk (High porosity and low permeability) and Karst
(Very porous and permeable)

Geophysics
Traps:
An area bounded by a barrier lying upwards from flow that

prevents the flow of hydrocarbon from a reservoir.
Reservoir upward seal has a layer of impermeable rock
called a cap rock. (i.e. shale, salt or anhydrite).
Classification of Traps:
The three types of traps are structural, stratigraphic or
combination:
1. Structural traps: Due to rock deformation (i.e. anticlines or
faults, domes , folds)
2. stratigraphic traps: Due to variation in facies that causes
rocks to be laterally impermeable. (i.e. sandstone lenses in
shale/sandstone whole, depositional or erosional pinchouts and carbonates reefs.
3. Combination traps: eroded anticlines, traps associated
with salt domes.

Geophysics
Characteristics:
Reservoir traps size are determine by:
1. Closed area
2. Closure
3. Impregnated zone closure
4. Filling ratio
See Fig. 9 for the different types of
reservoir traps.

Geophysics
Fig. 9

Geophysics
Reservoir Seismic Survey
Principles:
The objective of seismic techniques and

interpretation for reservoirs is to able to apply
larger basin area seismic exploration by
convectional seismic surveying with reservoir
surveying of relatively small reservoir size and
thickness.
The primary aim of seismic reflection shooting
in seismic surveying is to obtain structural
image of geological layers (markers). See Fig.
10

Geophysics
Fig. 10

Geophysics
The picked up seismic reflections are seismic profiles in vertical time

sections.
The seismic profiles are used to plot isochrone (equal time) curves,
which are converted to isobaths (equal depth) with offset wells
acoustic logs.
Exploration seismic can be inappropriate for structural analysis of
reservoirs due to the following:
1. A smaller/tighter grid spacing is needed in reservoir surveying due to
reservoir size compared seismic exploration surveying. (Density of
grid pattern in exploration seismic rarely exceeds one profile per
kilometer unlike in reservoir surveying where profiles are required at
500, 250 or even 100 m intervals)
2. The source and recording array for exploration seismic must be
adapted to reservoir depths.
3. Accurate determination of different bed markers in reservoirs can be
a problem using seismic exploration surveying. (Vertical Seismic
Profiles (VSP), Offset Vertical Seismic profiles (OSP), Sonic logs and
Synthetic Seismic films are tools used to obtain and refine depth/time
calibration of seismic sections).

Geophysics
2D seismic surveying is a drawback in representing all
the activities underneath a profile. (Due to
subsoil/substructure time image distortion)
3-D Seismic Survey:
3D Seismic surveying is a better technique for
interpretation of subsoil/substructure images. Profiles
are very close (at 50 m interval) and interpreted with
3-dimensional migration, which helps to re-position
sloping events/structures to their true position)
3D can be very costly (grid pattern and interpretation)
for onshore surveys. Used mostly offshore.

Geophysics
Vertical Seismic Profile (VSP) and Offset Vertical

Seismic Profile (OSP):
Their profile information/recording from wells are used in
depth/time calibration for accurate image of reservoirs
close to those wells. (Well records are normally, 10 to 20
meter apart)
Detection of Fluids:
Seismic surveying image can be used in fluid detection based on
acoustic impedance contrast between gas zones, cap rocks, or
between gas (or oil) zone and the aquifer to create different marked
reflections called bright spots, flat spots and pull-downs as per each
specific case.
Acoustic impendence is based on decreases in the apparent density
of the reservoir and in acoustic propagation velocities due to the
presence of gas (and, to a lesser degreed oil) in a reservoir.
This is not often obtained, except in favorable and limited
conditions. See Fig. 11

Geophysics
Fig. 11
Characterization of Reservoir
Rocks
For a rock to form a reservoir: It must
have the following:
1. Porosity - storage capacity.
2. Permeability - Fluid flow through the
rock.
3. Saturations contains sufficient
quantity and concentration of
hydrocarbons.
. Core analysis and well logging are
methods used to characterize
Rocks
Porosity
Definition:
For a rock sample- Apparent volume/total volume (VT) is equal to
solid volume (Vs) plus pore volume (Vp).
Porosity (expressed in %)
Effective porosity (u): Well connected pores or interconnected
pores to each other and to other formations that allows fluid to
circulate.
Total porosity (t): Accounts for all pores interconnected or not.
Residual porosity(r): Accounts for only isolated pores
Total porosity = Effective porosity + Residual porosity
If the effective porosity is 30 % and residual porosity is 10 %,
what is the total porosity?
Rocks
Effective porosity varies from less than 1% and
over 40%. Effective porosity ranges can be
classifies as:
- Low porosity if value is less than 5%
- Mediocre porosity if value is >5% and <10%
- Average porosity if value is >10% and <20%
- Good porosity if value is >20% and <30%
- Excellent porosity if value is >30%
Values for Intergranular porosity, dissolution
porosity (i.e. limestone) and fracture porosity
(<1%) are different.
Characterization of Reservoir Rocks

Porosity
tends to decrease with depth.
Determination of Porosity:
Porosity can be determined by core analysis or well logging:
Core Analysis:
- Based on the equation: = Vp/VT= = 1-
- Two of the three values Vp, Vs and VT are determined.

A. The following methods are used to measure (VT):
1. Mercury buoyancy measurement when a sample is
immersed in it. (IFP apparatus)
2.
Use of a mercury positive displacement pump.
Note: Mercury should not penetrate the sample for V to be
Rocks
3.
Direct measurement.
- Involves the use of sliding caliper for core
measurements.
- For example for a piece of cylindrical core,
VT (Core diameter d and height h are
determined with the sliding caliper)
- Best method to use for rocks that have
fissures or macro pores.
if you have a piece of cube core, will (VT) be the
same as the measurement for a cylindrical core?
Rocks
B.
The following methods are used to
measure (VS):
1. Measurement of the buoyancy exerted on a
sample by a solvent with which it is saturated.
- Vs is obtained based on the weight
difference of sample in air and in the immersed
solvent.
VS
2. Use of a compression chamber and MarrioteBoyles law.
- Based on the relationship between Pressure
and Volume that is applied in a chamber to
Rocks
C. The following methods are used
to measure (Vp): (Effective pore
volumes)
1. Measurement of the volume of air in the
pores.
- Based on relationship between pressure
and volume (Boyles law)
2. Measurement by weighing a liquid filled pore.
(Brine is mostly used)
3. Measurement by mercury injection. (Vp value
is usually less, due to less invasion of
mercury in the interconnected pores)
Rocks
D. A special method: Fluid saturation
- Based on measuring a fresh sample filled with water, oil and gas. (Not
the same fluid distribution as downhole). why?
- Sum of the of volume of the three fluid is equal to the rock total volume.
(A mercury positive displacement pump is used to determine V T)
Effect of Pressure:
- Rock porosity is reduced due to rock compression for
example due to production in the reservoir.
- Porosity obtained from the above methods do not correct for
differences between reservoir and laboratory conditions
because the porosity variation is low and a core does not
represent as entire reservoir.
Characterization of Reservoir Rocks

Permeability
The Specific or absolute permeability of a rock is ability of the
rock to allow a fluid with which it is saturated to flow through
its pores.
An experimental law, Darcys law is used to determine
permeability.
Permeability can vary from 0.1 mD: to more than 10 D. The
following are permeability ranges:
- <1mD: Very low
- 1 to 10mD: Low
- 10 to 50mD: Mediocre
- 50 to 200mD: Average
- 200 to 500mD: Good
- > 500 mD: Excellent
Rocks
Laws of Horizontal Flow in Steady-state
condition:
Note:
- Oil, water:
Darcys law
- Gas at low velocity:
Darcys law
- Gas:
Elementary pressure drop law
- Oil, water at high velocity: Elementary pressure drop law
Liquids:
Parallel flow:
Q=KA/
Cylindrical steady state flow:

For a well drilled from the boundaries of a layer:
Q=
R=drainage radius
rw= Borehole radius ( at
pressure Pwf)
Pi= initial reservoir pressure
Rocks
Gases:
If Darcys law applies:

Parallel flow: Q=KA/
Cylindrical flow= Q=
Rocks
Absolute Permeability, Effective Permeability and Relative
Permeability:
- Absolute rock permeability depends on the direction
considered. (kv and Kh)
- Due to stratification (problems of fluids with different
densities), kv is much lower than Kh.
- Relative permeability (oil) = Effective permeability (oil)
Permeability of rock
Will relative permeability for oil be the same as that of gas
in a oil and gas reservoir? Explain
- Relative permeability depends on the rock sample and the
fluid proportions.
Rocks
Absolute permeability is determined
by air circulation (constant or
variable head air permeameters)
See page 44 and 45 on how absolute
rock permeability can be determined,
using the above methods
Note: Porosity/Permeability exercise
will be illustrated in class.
Rocks
Saturations
- For a pore volume (Vp) that contains
(Vw) volume of water, (Vo) volume of oil,
and Vg (Volume of gas). The oil, water
and gas saturations are:
Sw= Vw/Vp, So = Vo/Vp and Sg=Vg/Vp
- Sw + So + Sg = 100%
- To know the oil and gas volume in place
requires knowing this saturations.
Rocks
The distribution and displacement of different fluids in
a reservoir depends on capillarity properties of rocks

such as Wettability, Interfacial pressure and Capillary
pressure in the pores.
Note:
For a rock sample saturated with a fluid and
surrounded by another fluid:
1. if the saturation fluid s wetting, it is displaced by the
surrounding fluid only if the excess pressure applied to
the surrounding fluid is at least equal to the capillary
pressure for the largest pores.
2. If the surrounding fluid is non-wetting, it is displaced
spontaneously by the surrounding fluid.
Note: Water/oil- Water is the wetting zone
Water/gas- Water is always the wetting zone
Oil/gas- Oil is the wetting zone
Rock
Equilibrium of an initial-state reservoir:

- For a homogenous reservoir (contains single-phase
oil (or gas) and water, and is water wet.
Hydrodynamism is absent.
- Hydrodynamism is present in inclined zones with
water at the base and along the flow direction with
hydrocarbon accumulation. The change in
saturation with depth is not uniform for a nonhomogeneous reservoir.
- Discuss example in class. See fig. 2.14 on page 55
in class.
Capillary migration: considers the effect of oil drop
movement from source rock to reservoir rocks.
Relationship between pore constriction and fluid (oil)
Characterization of
Reservoir Rock
See the methods used to obtain capillary pressure

curves. (Discuss)
Determination of in-situ saturation:

1. Direct method (Core analysis): Not possible
(Pressure and temperature falls when cores are at
the surface, that results to the fluids expansion and
re-distribution).
-In some cases, with the right drilling mud, the
saturations with irreducible water can be
determined on samples taking from the core center.
2. Indirect method by analysis of capillary
mechanism.
Characterization of
Reservoir Rock
Well log Method:
Basic method used to determine saturation.
Reservoir saturation cross-sections:
Saturations from a reservoir cross-section can be
made as a function of depth. See Fig 2.21
Surveys with a scanner:
- Used to obtain cross-sections images that aid to
visualize porous medium, morphology of the pores,
heterogeneities and fractures. Used to aid in
saturation calculation and saturation variations and
porosity calculations.
Characterization of
Reservoir Rock
Well logs
- Downhole recording of formations in a drilled borehole
with depth.
- Example is an electric well log: Used for reservoir
assessment.
The purpose of a well logs are:
1. Identification of reservoirs. (Lithology, porosity,
saturations( water/oil/gas) as a function of depth.
2. The dip of beds.
3. Well survey. (Diameter, inclination, casing cementing,
perforations)
4. Well correlations.
Characterization of
Reservoir Rock
Main characteristic recorded:
1. Resistivity and Spontaneous
potential
2. Natural radioactivity (gamma rays)
and induced radioactivity
(neutron/gamma-gamma)
3. Speed of sound, attenuation of
acoustic waves.
4. Borehole diameter and deviation,
Dip of beds
Characterization of
Reservoir
Rock
Electric Logs:
1. Spontaneous Potential (SP)
- The log is based on natural currents (no transmitters)
- Variation in electric potential are measured directly
between a surface electrode and the sonde.
-. Characteristics obtained are: Boundary of the reservoir
beds and resistivity of pore water Rw.
2. Resistivity log:
- Involves the use of transmitters to send electric current
into the formation.
- It measures the apparent formation/reservoir resistivity.
(Hydrocarbons have high resistivity and water with
increasing salinity (salt-water) has decreasing resistivity;
rock matrices is insulating.
- Characteristics obtained are a function of the porosity and
Characterization of
Reservoir Rock
- Resistivity logs can differentiate water from hydrocarbons.
Archie
equation:
n
(Rw/Rt)
n = 2 (for Formations with fractures)
Rt = True formation resistivity (can be obtained from logs)
Rw = Water resistivity
= Rock porosity
Sw = Water saturation
NOTE: The above equation is satisfied for clean reservoirs (with very
little shale).
3. Microresistivity Log:
- Used for measuring invaded zone resistivity that helps to provide
information on porosity and water saturation of the reservoir.
Characterization of Reservoir Rock

Radioactivity Logs:
1. Gamma ray log (GR):
- Measures the natural radioactivity of formations.
- Shales and marls (Higher gamma reading) more radioactive
than Sandstone and limestone (Lower gamma reading).
- Used to identify formation/ reservoir beds.
2. Neutron log (N):
- Measures the level of hydrogen content in the formation
from the number of detected slow neutrons.
- Formation porosity is determined because it can be referred
to amount of hydrogen components in the formation pores.
3. Density (D):
- Measures the density of the formation. (Gamma ray
radiation)
- Formation porosity can be calculated from a relationship
Characterization of
Reservoir
Rock
4. Neutron Relaxation (TDT):
- The log helps to locate hydrocarbons behind casing and
monitor interface changes during production.
Sonic (or Acoustic) Log:
- Involves sound waves transmission and reception.
- Delta time is transmitter/receiver interval that varies
with fluid types and formation types. See page 69.
- Can be used to determine lithologies and porosity
(compressional travel time)
Auxillary Logs:
1. Caliper logs:
- Measures borehole diameter. (identifies cavings,
constrictions, cement quantities e.tc)
Characterization of
2. Dipmeter: Reservoir Rock
- Logs provide dip bed values and its direction.
3. Cement Bond Log:
- Measures the amplitude of acoustic signal received through
cement. (Signal is weak, if cement is present (attenuation) and
signal is strong, if cement is absent).
- The log analysis helps to identify cement bonding to the
casing and to the formation.
Determination of Lithology, Porosity and Saturations:
The following are used:
Lithology:
a. Gamma and/or SP + cuttings (and cores)
and, if necessary with:
b. Neutron + Density + or (Sonic) combinations
Characterization of
Reservoir Rock
Porosity:
Resistivity, neutron, density, sonic
Saturations:
a. Resistivity (+SP), for Rw,as needed)
n(R /R )
w
t
water and oil (or gas).
b. neutron + density combination for gas (lower density and higher neutron,
where D indicates too strong apparent porosity and N too weak apparent
porosity)
Hence you can use:

Resistivity (+SP) + N + D -> water, oil and gas
Fig 2.25 (A composite log) Discuss in next classSee Fig 12.
Repeat Formation Tester (RFT):

- Used for spot microtest at desired depths to get information such as : Static
pressure of the reservoir fluids; fluid types and possibly an order of permeability
magnitude and other vertical thickness reservoir parameter values.
Characterization of
Reservoir Rock
Production Logs:
- The logs analysis the production and characteristics of
fluids level by level to determine: Production(injection)
intervals; fluid types produced and at each level;
completion quality (i.e. well treatment (acidizing) or
cementing job seal etc.)
- Ran during well production(examples of instruments
are: flow-meters, gradiometer or combined (Production
logging tool))
- Information such as: Flow-rate, water cut, GOR, density
e.tc are obtained for each interval; and also the
production well results at the surface for each interval.
Fluids and PVT Studies

General Fluid Behavior:
Fluids can be a mixture (i.e. Oil and gas or liquid
mixtures) with different molecules or pure
substances with identical molecules. (i.e. natural
gas or liquid).
Both fluid types behavior are different due to their
One-phase fluid: The behavior depends on the
volume occupied by the fluid, which depends on
Pressure and Temperature.
Two-phase fluid: The behavior depends on the
pressure as a function of temperature and not the
volume of the two phase.
Three phase fluid: Only a single
temperature/pressure is possible. (Volume=zero)

Pure Substances:
The following illustrates the fluid behavior of pure

substances on pressure/specific volume and
pressure/temperature diagrams:
Pressure/Specific Volume Diagram/(Clapeyon

Diagram):

Pressure/Specific Volume diagram illustration: The
following is observed in an experiment:
Pure substance is Liquid state at pt. A
Increase in Volume (at constant temperature), results in
the following:
1. Steep drop in pressure. (Substance in liquid phase
only)
2. Vapor phase. (At bubble pt.)
3. Increase in vapor phase/decrease in liquid phase. (At
constant pressure)
4. No more liquid phase, at point R (Dew pt.)
5. Vapor phase only as pressure slowly decreases.

Temperature can be varied from below the starting
temperature (T) up to the maximum critical
temperature (TC).
Above (TC), pure substance is one phase gas
(Supercritical state) regardless of pressure.
Combination of the bubble point curve (with bubble
points) and the dew-point curve (with dew points) is
called the saturation curve.
Any point within the two-phase zone is equal to pure
substance distribution within the liquid and vapor
phase BM/BR=Mass of vapor/Mass of pure substance

Pressure/Temperature Diagram:

Pressure/Temperature diagram
illustration:
Bubble point and dew point
pressures are the same (Points
merge at the same temperature)
Two phase stage ends at critical pt.
(Pc and Tc)
Vapor pressure curve is referred as
liquid/vapor equilibrium pressure.
(Depends on temperature and not

Mixtures:
Pressure/Specific Volume: The following is observed:
Mixture is liquid at Pt. A (Press. and Temp. T1)
Increasing the volume results in:
1. Steep decrease in pressure in liquid state.
2. Vapor phase. (Bubble pt.)
3. Increase in vapor phase/decrease in liquid phase.
(Pressure decrease but not as in 1 above)
4. No more liquid phase at Pt. R1 (Dew-point)
5. Vapor phase only as pressure slowly decreases.

Pressure/Specific Volume
Diag.

Between the critical temperature Tc and critical
condensation temperature Tcc, the fluid behavior
described above holds.
At a constant temp. and increasing volume: The
following is happens:
1. Gas phase (Supercritical phase) as pressure falls.
2. Liquid phase reappears. (Retrograde dew pt. R2)
3. Increase and a decrease in liquid state.
4. No liquid state present. (Dew pt. R2)
5. Only gas phase. (Pressure falls)
. Above Critical condensation temperature Tcc, mixture is
always gas.

Pressure/Temperature diagram
illustration:
At a given temperature (Bubble pt.
and dew pt. pressures are not the
same)
Has equal composition curves in the
liquid phase (0% for dew pt., 100%
for Bubble pt. curve)

Different types of Reservoirs:
1. Oil Reservoirs:
- Reservoir temperature is lower than mixture critical
temperature.
a. Initial reservoir fluid is under-saturated oil. (One phase
hydrocarbon)
- Gas phase appears at bubble pt. or saturation
pressure)
- Results in decrease in oil pore volume and increase in
oil viscosity.
- Oil is thereafter replaced by flowing trapped gas.
- Results in decrease in reservoir pressure and low oil
production
b. Initial reservoir fluid is oil with gas cap. (Two phase liquid
and vapor hydrocarbon)

for reservoir pressure maintenance and better oil
production.
- Oil is saturated at this state. (Reservoir pressure is below
the bubble pt. pressure)
- For a given reservoir, bubble point pressure of oil
decreases with increase in depth.
2. Retrograde condensate gas reservoir:
- Reservoir temperature is between the critical and critical
condensate temperatures of the reservoir mixture.
a. Initial reservoir pressure is the retrograde dew point
pressure.
- Results in a rapid condensation of hydrocarbons in
the reservoir.
- Gas produced is depleted with heavy condensate
production.

3. Gas reservoirs one-phase in reservoir conditions:
- Reservoir temperature is higher than the critical
condensation temperature of the reservoir
mixtures.
- The gas are mostly wet gas at the surface.
(Condensate)
- Some are dry gas at the surface. (Methane and
ethane)
See Fig. below on classification of hydrocarbon
reservoirs based on thermodynamic criteria. P/T
diagram.

Behavior of Oil and Gas between the
Reservoir and Surface:
Hydrocarbon fluids differ in the volume and
quality of the fluids in the reservoir and the
surface.
Light oils produce more gas at the surface.
Heavy oil produce very little gas or likely
( dead oil) at the surface.
Dry gas yields only gas at the surface.
Condensate gas yields mostly condensate.
See Fig on the behavior of oil and gas between
the reservoir and surface.

Natural gases:
See the ideal gas equation in text
Z factor (compressibility factor, depends

on the gas composition, pressure and
temperature)
- As pressure approaches zero,
molecular interaction decreases and the
gas approaches ideal gas and Z
approaches 1.

Volume factor of Gas Bg:
- Used to convert volume occupied by
gas at P and T from the reservoir to
standard volume.
Determination of Z:
1. Experimental
2. By chart: Z as a function of
Pseudoreduced pressure and
Pseudoreduced
temperature(illustrate in class)

Condensate Content of Gas:
- Mainly (propane and higher), (butane and
higher) and pentanes and higher content
of gas.
Viscosity of Gas:
- Gas viscosity rises with temperature at
low pressure (close to atmos. Pressure)
- At other pressures, it rises as the pressure
increases and temperature decreases.

Well Effluent composition of Gas Reservoirs.
See table and discuss.
Oils:
The specific gravity (SG) is between 0.75 and 1.
(Also in API gravity)
See equation in Text.
Behavior in the one-phase liquid state and the

two phase state:
Discuss in class

Formation Volume Factor and Gas/Oil Ratio:
Quantities of oil-in-place, reserves, flowrates and
cumulative production are expressed in volumes (or
masses) of stock tank oil.
Gas in place (dissolved and free) is measured in
standard volumes.
Gas oil ratio: volume of produced gas/volume of stock
tank oil.
Variation between Reservoir Oil and Stock tank Oil
at a Given Reservoir Pressure:
Due to the drop in pressure and temperature when oil
falls to the surface from the oil reservoir to become a
stock tank oil, a dissolved gas comes out of oil solution.
This results a smaller stock tank liquid volume
recovery than the volume leaving the reservoir.

The following is used:
1. Formation Volume Factor (FVF) Bo:
(Bbls/bbl)
. Volume of reservoir liquid phase that
yields a unit volume of oil in stock tank
conditions. (Unit can be in: Bbls/bbl)
2. Solution Gas Oil Ratio (GOR) Rs:
. Standard volume of gas recovered with a
unit volume of stock tank oil. (Unit can be
in: Ft3/bbl)

Variation in FVF Bo and Solution GOR Rs
with Reservoir Pressure, Production GOR:
Discuss in Class (Include Diagrams)
Viscosity:
Viscosity varies with pressure, temperature
and quantity of dissolved gas
The order of magnitude in the reservoir is:
0.2 cp to 1 P (Light crude and Heavy crude is
above 1 P).

Viscosity can be determined in:
1) Laboratory
- Fall of ball in a calibrated tube
filled with oil at a given temperature.
- Capillary tube viscometer.
2) Chart (see text)

Well Effluent composition of Oil Reservoirs:
See table and discuss.
Formation water:
The presence of two or more compositions may indicate
several aquifers, and for water flooding, the compatibility
with injected water that must be investigated.
Compressibility:
It is property that enables the water from an aquifer to
drain a reservoir by expansion.
Viscosity:
Viscosity is determined in the laboratory or from a chart.

Water and Hydrocarbons:
Problems associated with formation water
during production:
a. With Oil: Emulsion problems
b. With gases:
- Production of gases causes condensation
of the water that forms gas hydrates with
methane, ethane, propane, butanes, CO 2 and
H2S in certain temperature and pressure. The
hydrates can clog the lines at the surface.

Liquid/Vapor Equilibrium, Equation
of State:
Discuss in class with other charts.
Volumetric Evaluation of
Oil and Gas in Place
Knowing the Volume of hydrocarbon
in place in a reservoir is a
fundamental importance.
Oil and gas in place: Original Oil in
Place (OOIP), Oil initial in Place (OIIP),
Original gas in place (OGIP), Gas
Initial in Place (GIIP).
Or called Accumulations
The Different Categories of Oil and Gas in Place:
Volumes in place are classified and varies with time as the
reservoir is better understood.
Information from drilled wells (such as: logs, petrophysical
measurements, PVT analysis, e.t.c) along with geophysical
and geological surveys are used in the estimation.
When a reservoir is discovered, a rapid preliminary
calculation is used to estimate Hydrocarbon Initial in place
(HCIIP) volume.
- Few data is available to be used and all results form the
discovery are analyzed.
- Rough estimation results.
First/second (HCIIP) estimate leads to a decision
to drill one or more extension wells.
- Used for reservoir image clarification and if,
possible for production forecast.
- Improved estimation results.
Reservoir development starts thereafter.
- More drilled well provides more information
- Information is added to further clarify reservoir
image.
- Reservoir estimation is finally clarified at the end
of the field development phase.
The different categories of quantities in place are represented
roughly by: Proven, Probable and Possible for a level or
reservoir.
1. Proven oil in place: Considered as certain.(Zones penetrated by
wells)
2. Probable oil in place: structural data, log interpretations and
pressure indicate impregnated zones, but without absolute
certainty.
3. Possible oil in place: Insufficient data on fluid interfaces and
extension of facies in certain zones leads to uncertainties, but the
presence of hydrocarbon-saturated rocks is not discarded.
. Proven oil < Actual (Start of the life of a field)
. Proven + Probable+ Possible oil > Actual (more wells drilled to
enhance reservoir image leads to closer to actual oil)
See Figure below: Different categories of oil in place
Volumetric Calculation of Oil and Gas in
Place:
Two methods are used to assess the volume
in place.
1. Volumetric methods (will illustrate here)
2. Dynamic method (later chapter)
. Dynamic method is used if the reservoir has
produced for sometime (one or two years)
and to confirm the values from the
volumetric method.
Principle of Volumetric method:
It can be difficult to access (HCIIP) because:
1. Complexity of porous medium
2. Uncertainty to the exact reservoir shape
3. Insufficient data such as porosity,
Saturation, e.t.c. (Few drilled wells in a large
area)
. Difficulty is in the parameters determination
that is used in (HCIIP) estimation and not
the volume calculation.
The
calculation can be simplified as:
1. Volume (reservoir conditions) =
Volume of impregnated rock VR x Useful thickness/Total thickness or net
pay /gross pay x
porosity x saturation with hydrocarbons
2. Volume (Surface conditions)= Volume in reservoir conditions/Formation
volume factor
Combine 1 and 2: for example, for oil
R* *
The volume in place are adjusted to surface conditions fro easy of
comparison with cumulative hydrocarbon production.
Calculation of Volume of Impregnated Rock V R:
Can be made considering the whole reservoir,
or
Can be made composed of several sectors or compartments
(faults, different levels, facies variations) by subdividing the
reservoir vertically and Horizontally.
Horizontal Subdivision:
First made automatically when the structure saddles two or more
permits or leases.
Used to make individualized sectors when there are faults,

structural saddles, facies variations and data that shows the
existence of independent sectors. (Different oil/water,
interfaces, distinct initial pressures)
The identification of the distribution of the volume- in- place
in the individualized sectors allows production rates to be
defined by sectors. This helps to identify required number and
Vertical Subdivision:
This subdivision depends mainly on the geological model adapted.
Can be made from the identification of large units from logs and/or
sedimentological analysis.
The volume in place for each unit and the best production scheme
can be determined for wells in the unit.
The subdivision is made by units that can be identified on the
entire sector.
The reservoir must be considered as a whole, without a need for
subdivision if the distribution of sedimentary bodies is anarchic.
It is best to subdivide the reservoir to a reasonable degree (not
more) to minimize errors that would lead to vast calculations.
An example is a subdivision that is based on log analysis and
laboratory measurements (cuttings and cores) that will help
determine if the reservoirs are independent or not.
This can help in analyzing changes in pressure and production in
each level after production starts in the reservoir.
FIG: Same as page

121
Fluid Interfaces:
Exact position of any O/W, G/W and G/O interfaces in each level (unit) must be
clarified.
The interfaces can be identified by logs, core analyses, and production tests.
The two methods below can be used to calculate the volume of impregnated
rock (VR) or Reservoir rock.
1. Reservoir rock volume calculation from Isobaths cubic content or Area
depth
method:
- Can be used in the calculation of each unit volume.
- Geological and geophysical surveys are used to furnish
isobaths maps for the top and the base of the reservoir.
- A planimeter is used on the two maps to calculate the rock
volume.
- The maps are plotted on a depth/area diagram and together with the
OWC
contact gives the volume of impregnated rock. With a Gas cap (GOC),
rock
volume for gas and that of oil is determined separately.
2. Rapid Calculation Method:
- Used for rapid estimation of the rock
volume to obtain an order of magnitude
from a poorly known structure at the time of
discovery. (Area depth method is not
employed)
- Structure is treated as spherical dome
or trapezoidal shape. See examples in the
fig. below that demonstrates the
determination of VR based on the structures.
Calculation of the volume of Oil from
Isopach Maps:
This calculation is made later when a minimum
number of wells has been drilled.
Involves the combination of two isobaths maps (Top
and Bottom of the reservoir) to get an isopach map of
the reservoir.
An iso-h/porosity map is obtained from the porosities
of wells to chart a map of porosities.
Pore volume calculation is made from a Planimeter
tracing the area S between curves for the two maps.
Vp = S x hu x porosity. (See figure in text)
More accurate if lateral variations in thickness and porosity are
substantial.
Volume in place (N) are calculated with the determination of
the average value of Bo and Swi (or Sw in the transition zone)
with the aid of iso-oil (or iso-gas) maps.
Choice of Average Characteristics, Uncertainties:

Choice of Average Characteristics:
Involve the use of average reservoir characteristics such as:
hu/ht, porosity, water saturation and Oil formation volume factor
in the calculation of oil thickness or oil equivalent. (Illustrate in
class)
Used for newly discovered reservoirs where characteristics
from one well is extrapolated to the entire reservoir.
Uncertainties and Probabilistic Methods:
Lack of information about a reservoir can lead to major
numerical errors.
Probabilistic method is applied to parameters characterizing
reservoirs to minimize errors.
Examples of the probabilistic methods used are: Monte
Carlo and Krigeing Methods. The results gives an average
value and a probabilized range of volumes in place.
The following type of uncertainties origin can be
distinguished:
1. Systematic: Due to related technique applied. (i.e.
Uncertainties related to seismic picking, acoustic velocity,
e.t.c)
2. Occasional: Related to the reservoir itself. (i.e. water levels,
correlations (function of the type of sedimentation), e.t.c.
The uncertainties can be quantified by:
1. Subjective uncertainties: Use of light statistical
approach and recommendation of experienced
personal in determination of the uncertainties
to derive the probabilities.
2. Objective uncertainties: Uncertainties made at
end of the field development with large data set
that provides more valid statistics.
NOTE: Decisions are mainly taken at the start of
development and the uncertainties are essentially
subjective.
One-Phase Fluid Mechanics and

Well Test Interpretation
The two conditions below can be expected to
occur in a reservoir:
1. Fluid flow alone in a layer or in the
presence of an immobile fluid. (One-phase
flow)
2. Simultaneous flow of two or three fluids.
(Multi-phase flow)
. One phase flow mechanics relates flow
rate with pressure as a function of time and
others fluid and rock properties.

Well testing: Involves wellbore reservoir pressure
measurements at the start and during production.
Well testing can identify:
1. A wells production capacity
2. Reservoir static pressure (or well drainage area)
3. Product of hk (hydrocarbon producing thickness
multiplied by permeability)
4. Any change in production zone properties due to Skin
effect. (Affects meanly reservoir permeability when the
area around the wellbore is damaged or improved by
stimulation)
5. Well drainage radius R.
6. Existence of rock heterogeneities or structural
discontinuities such as faults.

7. Types and changes of produced fluids.
8. Oil and gas in place and drive mechanism,
if applicable.
PVT sample studies and analysis are
carried out during testing at the onset of a
reservoir life to determine how effluents
will be processed.
Also, from the test, initial or changes in well
completion requirements can be
established.

Oil flow around wells:
Diffusivity equation for a simple homogeneous
isotropic reservoir is derived under the following
conditions:
1. Porosity with constant permeability (no direction
considered)
2. Fluid volume is equal to pore volume. (single phase)
3. Constant reservoir temperature
4. Assume an incompressible rock
5. Liquid compressibility is constant in pressure interval
corresponding to the area drained by the well.
(Viscosity is also used)

The diffusivity equation for this reservoir
type is derived from the relationship in (5),
Darcys law, Law of conversation of mass
and equation of state. (Illustrate in class)
We are considered with circular radial flow
that occurs around wells.
See Fig below: Use to characterize different
equations for different flow boundary
conditions in time and space.

Standard Solution to the Diffusivity
Equation:
Production or changes in flow-rate of a
well creates a disturbance that is felt in a
wide area.
Pressure between reservoir boundary and
well drainage area before the disturbance
reaches both point is a function of location
both points and time. At this time the fluid
is in transient.

The flow regime changes from Transient flow until the
disturbance is felt at the reservoir boundary (or well
drainage zone) , and at this point it is in Transition, then to
a steady-state flow (constant pressure outer boundary
reservoir) and semi-steady state flow ( bounded reservoir).
Typically reservoirs can exhibit flow regime changes from
transient to semi-steady state.
Constant Pressure outer boundary reservoir:
Not common
Steady-state flow with constant pressure.
Examples:
1. Aquifer drive reservoir. (Volume of hydrocarbon produced
from the reservoir is replaced by an equal volume of water)

2. Production from water flooding and pressure
maintenance. (Volume injected equal volumes
produced). (More common)
Bounded Reservoirs:
Semi-steady state flow with constant pressure drop.
Pressure difference between any two points is the
same.
Examples sandstone lenses in shale or reservoir
drained by many wells.
See the figs. below for the two examples described
above.

Pressure Drawdown Equations: (Flow-rate)
1. At constant flow rate:
The flow conditions that occur are from transient
flow (valid as long as the reservoir behaves like a
infinite reservoir) then to either semi-steady
state flow (bounded cylindrical reservoir ) or
steady state flow (constant pressure outer
boundary reservoir) both at when the disturbance
reaches the reservoir boundaries or well drainage
zone.
NOTE: Discuss relationship.

2. At Variable Flow Rate:
During well testing variation of flowrates is done to confirm the reservoir
parameter results.
This is done by using the principle of
superimposition to obtain equations
that relates the changes in flow-rate
with time.
NOTE: Discuss in relationship.

Equation of Pressure Build-up after
Shut-in:
Discuss relationship.
Note:
In an Infinite reservoir.
The pressure build-up (well shut-in)
interpretation helps to obtain reservoir
pressure Pi (extrapolated) and a mean
permeability of the drainage area.

Important Remark:
Discuss in class.
Skin Effect or Damage:
Decrease in permeability due to the partial plugging of
invaded zones by cakes and filtrates from drilling mud.
S = Skin effect coefficient
S > 0 = If the layer near the wellbore is damaged.
(Additional pressure loss)
S<0 = If the layer near the wellbore is improved.
(Reduced pressure loss)
Discuss the relationship between pressure drawdown
with skin effect.
Discuss the relationship between the pressure build-up

Total skin effect St: Skin effect due to
perforations (Sp), if applicable + Skin effect
due to partial penetration effect (Se).
Sp and Se can be obtained by chart or
formulae.
See figure on text (page 146)
St = Sc + Sp + Se,
Sc (due to plugging) can be found.
Sc can be used for well improvement by
stimulation.

Productivity Index: Defines the
production capacity of a well.
It is calculated in order to determine
the completion of a well for a given
flow-rate (pumping or gas-lift) or the
pressure loss that must be at the
wellhead. (Naturally flowing)
Multi-Phase Flow
Flow in reservoirs are not generally
one phase flow.
An oil reservoir, with oil above the
bubble point or dry/wet gas reservoir
without an aquifer is an example of a
one phase flow
Multi-phase flow can result from two
or three phase flow among oil ,gas
and water in a reservoir
Multi-Phase Flow
Cases of Multi-phase flow
Oil Reservoir:
1. Original G/O and O/W interfaces location
change (2- phase)
2. Dissolved gas liberation from oil (PR<Pb); 2phase or if near an O/W interface (3-phase)
3. Gas injection in an oil reservoir or water
injection in an under-saturated oil (2phase) and if water in injected in saturated
oil (3-phase)
Multi-Phase Flow
Gas Reservoir:
1. Original G/W or G/O interfaces location
change (2- phase)
2. When gas condensate is under
retrograde dew-point pressure (2-phase)
or if near a near an aquifer (3-phase)
. Forces acting on multi-phase flow (2phase flow) are Viscosity forces, gravity
forces and capillarity forces
Multi-Phase Flow
Relationship between capillary doublelet,
development of drops and Jamin effect in
2-phase flow in two porous medium
One porous medium with two smaller pore
spaces and the other with a smaller and
wider pore space
Movement of displaced oil in the pore space
of a reservoir whether injected with water or
due to an aquifer is easier in the first porous
medium compared to the second porous
medium (doublelet)
This is due to additional capillary forces in a
smaller pore spaces of the first porous
Multi-Phase Flow
The oil/water interface advances quicker in narrower part of

the second porous medium
Oil droplet is formed in the wider part of the second porous
medium and either block the pore (trapped) or pass through
(referred as Jamin effect)
Whether the oil is trapped or passes through the pore spaces
depends on the pressure gradient (pressure drop) across the
flow.
It is common in reservoirs to have trapped or immobilized oil
in pores (referred as residual oil)
This is due to low pressure gradient (pressure drop) in across
pore fluids during hydrocarbon production
A reservoir residual oil corresponds to a reservoir residual oil
saturation
Reservoir residual oil saturation (Sor) average values are
typically in this range (20% <Sor>40%)
NOTE: In conclusion, unless, there are two fluids that miscible,
Multi-Phase Flow
Concept of Relative Permeability

The simultaneous flow of two fluids tends to reduce
permeability for each fluid. This is referred as the
effective permeabilities of both fluids.
Effective permeability of fluids depend on specific
permeability of the medium (reservoir nature) and the
fluids saturations. (i.e. Effective permeability of gas in a
gas-water reservoir)
If the volume of one fluid is increased either by flow or
injection it will affect both fluids effective permeability
and saturations.
The term relative permeability is now introduced and
depends only on saturations
Relative permeability is ratio of effective permeability of
one fluid at a particular saturation to the absolute
permeability of that fluid at total saturation.
Multi-Phase Flow
Relative permeability kri = Ki/K
Ki = Effective permeability (2-phase)
K = Absolute permeability (1-phase)
The relative permeabilities for water, oil and gas, when
any two of the fluids exist in a given medium is given
as:
Water: Krw = Kw/k
Oil: Kro = Ko/k
Gas: Krg = Kg/k
Relative permeability range is between 0 and 1
When a single fluid is present in a rock, relative
permeability is 1.
Multi-Phase Flow
Relative permeability calculation is
used for comparison of the ability of
different fluids to flow in the
presence of each other
Multi-Phase Flow
Variation in Relative Permeability as a Function of
Saturation
Oil/Water (or Gas/Water)Pair:
If a rock sample has oil and contains pore water. Initially (S w =
Sw) and when a water (wetting fluid) is slowly injected,
(Referred as Displacement by imbibition), the following can
be observed.
1. The relative oil permeability decreases and the relative
water permeability increases up to a maximum water
saturation Swm = 1- Sor; as the water saturation increases (Oil
is slowly pushed out from the pores and replaced by water)
2. Oil stops circulating at the residual oil saturation (minimum
saturation)
3. Water starts circulating above the connate water or initial
water saturation in the pores (Swi)
Multi-Phase Flow
When Kro + Krw < 1 (indicates that both
fluids hinder each other during
simultaneous movement)
When (Swm =1 Sor), oil no longer flows out
and at this point an oil reservoir has being
swept by water
The same phenomenon happens in a oil
reservoir with a aquifer drive energy source
See the diagram that shows the relative
permeability relationship with saturation for
Oil/Water mixture
Multi-Phase Flow
Multi-Phase Flow
Oil/Gas Pair:
Similar observation as above, but
with the gas phase
The critical gas saturation is the
minimum gas saturation required for
gas to flow
See the diagram below that shows
the relative permeability relationship
with saturation for Oil/Gas mixture
Multi-Phase Flow
Multi-Phase Flow
Relative permeabilities comments: Practical
applications
NOTE:
The inhibition curve must be if oil is displaced by
water (O/W interface and/or water injection) at
least for water-wet medium. This also applies to a
gas reservoir with an active aquifer
The drainage curve must be used if oil is displaced
by gas (G/O interface and/or gas injection)
because the gas is non-wetting compared to oil
Multi-Phase Flow
Determination of Relative Permeabilities
This can be done by taking measurements in
reservoir condition (P,T) on large core samples or
use of empirical equations in the absence of
cores
Two methods that used are:
1. Displacement of one fluid by another,
Unsteady-state, WJBN method
2. Static method for measuring relative
permeability, steady-state method
. Empirical equations: See text on the equations
for gas/oil pair and oil/water pair as specified.
Multi-Phase Flow
Capillary Imbibition
It is the spontaneous displacement of non-wetting fluid by a
wetting fluid
A typical example is oil displacement by water and is a favorable
mechanism for oil recovery
Theory of Frontal Displacement
Front Concept:
Involves the flow of two immiscible fluids in a large medium in
one direction with variations in pressure, saturations, fluid speeds
e.tc in a single space direction that corresponds to the movement
direction
Typical examples are: A displacement that corresponds to the
movement of G/O or O/W interface during natural depletion or it
may occur between two lines of production and injection wells
See the diagram below that shows the saturation profile for water
at a given time, as a function of the displacement direction x
(Increasing x), when it displaces Oil (Four zones are noted)
Multi-Phase Flow
Multi-Phase Flow
See the relationship (equation) for water-cut (fw)
at the front with regards to flow-rate, relative
permeabilities, Viscosity for oil and water as
specified
Water cut is a function of saturation and flow-rate
of oil
Encroachment, Instability Mechanism,
Definition of Mobility Ratio
Encroachment:
Involves the distortion of the interfaces (i.e. O/W,
G/O or G/W) and fronts in a porous medium
Multi-Phase Flow
Encroachment that occurs in a larger scale in the
front is called Tongue
Encroachment that occurs in a smaller scale is called
Fingering
Encroachment that occurs near a producing well is
called coning
Encroachments are governed by conditions of
stability or instability
A stable movement is where a small change in the
movement initial conditions (initial coordinates,
initial speed) causes variations in the movement that
remains small over time and of the same order as
the initial disturbance
The opposite to above is called unstable movement
Multi-Phase Flow
Mobility Ratio:
See the relationship (equation) for mobility ratio as
specified
Mobility ratio of displaced oil or gas depends on
relative permeability of oil/oil viscosity and that of the
displacing fluids on relative permeability of the
displacing fluid/fluid viscosity
The lower the mobility ratio, the better the
displacement stability
Instabilities such as (tongues, fingering) are most
likely to occur if Mobility ratio is higher than 1
Mobility ratio (M > 1) is unfavorable (i.e. for gas
displacement, since gas is gas viscosity is very low0
Mobility ratio (M< 1) is favorable (only for gas or light
oil displaced by water)
Multi-Phase Flow
Tongue:
Two conditions that results to the instability
mechanism in the formation of tongue are: M>1
and Qo>Qc (Production flowrate > critical flowrate)
Tongue formation affects production
Fingering:
Occurs due to rock heterogeneity (variation in
permeabilities) and grows to a metric or decametric
scale if (M>1)
If (M<1), incipient fingering is resorbed
Higher the mobility ratio and more rock
heterogeneity, the more likely for fingering to occur
Fingering is superimposed on tongue occurrence
Multi-Phase Flow
Coning:
An example of interface encroachment that
results from the local interface deformation (G/O
or O/W) near a producing well
Draw-off is related to the pressure difference
between the well and interface, which results in
the distortion of the interface to approach the well
Two types of coning are: Bottom coning and Edge
coning
See the diagram below that describes tongue,
fingering and coning (Bottom and Edge coning)
Multi-Phase Flow
Tongue
Bottom coning
Edge Coning
Fingering
Multi-Phase Flow
Production Aspect: Coning Parameters

Drilling a well subject to coning and required
production rate :
A cautious solution consists of perforating over a
short stretch of pay zone and the adoption of a low
flowrate to delay undesirable fluid arrival at the well
for as long as possible (still used, if Qo < Qc)
Note: Better to avoid drilling a well close to (O/W,
G/O or G/W) interface with a large thickness of
undesirable fluid
A full pot solution involves wide perforations and
withdrawing at maximum flowrate (Results to more
production of the undesirable fluid i.e. water)
The use of injected polymers to prevent water
influxes is another method that can be used in wells
Primary Recovery, Estimation of

Reserves
Primary recovery or natural depletion of a
reservoir involves the production of
hydrocarbons with a reservoir natural
energy.
Reservoir pressure and flow-rate will
eventually decrease over a period of time
Secondary recovery method can be applied
to recover more hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbon in place x recovery factor (R%)
= reserves

Reserves
Reserves:
Means estimated recoverable hydrocarbon volumes
in place (to be produced)
Also referred as Initial reserves
Reserves that is obtainable from primary recovery
depends on:
1. Initial oil and gas volume in place and their
distribution
2. Reservoir rock and fluids characteristic
3. The present drive mechanism and production rate
4. Economics factor

Reserves
A reservoir drive mechanism influences
recovery factor and hence production rates
Reserve classification is both technical and
economical
Typical recoverable reserves classifications
are:
1. Proven
2. Probable
3. Possible
4. Ultimate

Reserves
Drive and Recovery Mechanism types:
1. One phase expansion
- Possible in gas or under-saturated oil reservoir
- More gas production from a gas reservoir
than oil production from an oil reservoir
Why?
2. Expansion of gases coming out of solution
- Possible when reservoir pressure is less than
bubble point pressure in under-saturated oil
reservoir
- Also called dissolved gas drive or solution gas drive
- Increased produced GOR
- Affects oil production

Reserves
3. Expansion of the water of an aquifer

- In oil reservoir, oil is readily recovered by this
drive
- In a gas reservoir, high pressure gas can be
trapped behind the water (G/W interface).
(Not ideal and can be harmful)
4. Expansion of gas cap
- Involves gas expansion from a gas cap on top of a
saturated oil reservoir
- Also called gas-cap drive
See the diagram below that shows the mechanisms that
allow production for under-saturated and saturated oil
reservoirs

Reserves

Reserves
5. Imbibition:
- Slow mechanism
- ideal for heterogeneous reservoir
6. Gravitational Forces
- Separation of hydrocarbons due
to gravity
7. Rock compressibility
-ideal for one phase flow

Reserves
Influence of production rate:
1. Oil Reservoir without Aquifer
- If it has a gas cap or not, recovery can be faster
- Production rate can be rapid (recovery independent of flow-rate)
- No aquifer influence
2. Oil Reservoir that has a mediocre petro physical characteristics with
an aquifer:
Two cases
I) - Production rate can be rapid (i.e. one-phase expansion and
Solution
gas drive reservoirs)
- aquifer has less time to influence oil production
- Recovery rate is about (20 to 30%)
ii) - Production rate can be slowed
- aquifer has time to influence oil production
-Recovery rate is about 40%

Reserves
3. Fractured oil that has good characteristics
reservoir with a large aquifer: Two Cases
i) -Production rate can be rapid
- aquifers acts mainly in the large connected
fractures
- Oil in matrix can move into these water flooded
fractures and become trapped
ii) Production rate can be slowed
- Aquifer has time to simultaneously drain all
fractures and matrix
- Recovery rate is higher than in case 1.

Reserves
Note:
The decision on production rates lies
between economic factors and
reservoir conservation policy.
Secondary recovery method should
be
considered, if production rate is
increased

Reserves
Compressibility Coefficients, Fluid Expansion
Compressibility
The different compressibilities of reservoir fluids
influence their recovery rate
Gas is more compressible than Liquid (Oil or
water)
Fluid Expansion
Also gas expands more easily than other fluids
(Oil or water) as reservoir pressure decreases
NOTE: This explains why Gas recovery from a gas
reservoir and oil recovery with a gas cap is higher
than oil recovery in an under-saturated oil

Reserves
Multi-phase Flow, Reservoir Heterogeneities
Multi-phase Flow
Presence of two or three fluids in a reservoir can
hinder the flow of one fluid over another due to the
effective and relative permeabilities of the fluids (i.e.
saturated oil reservoir with a gas cap, undersaturated reservoir with reservoir pressure below
bubble point pressure , retrograde gas condensate
phase) all with underlying aquifer support.
For an oil reservoir as the main recovery fluid, other
fluids (water or gas) can come into the well that will
eventually slow oil production.

Reserves
Reservoir heterogeneities
Heterogeneous reservoirs with
decreased permeability have
reduced recovery rate compared to
permeable and continuous
homogeneous reservoirs

Reserves
Three types of calculation methods are
used to calculate recovery factor
(ratio) and reservoir size
1. Material Balance
2. Numerical method
3. Decline laws
1) used at the start and 2) at the end
of production

Reserves
Recovery Statistics
Hydrocarbon recovery rate in different reservoirs
varies due to:
1. The fluids properties
2. Thermodynamic conditions
3. Petro-physical properties
4. Variation on reservoir architecture and
heterogeneities
5. Production rate
The figure below shows different reservoir types
(drive mechanisms and recovery rates)

Reserves
World Reserves: Take note

Reserves
Material Balance
Based on making the volume of fluids
contained in the reservoir the same as the
reservoir pore volume at any given time.
The simplest reservoir simulation model
Used for:
1. Production forecast: Np, Gp, Wp, at various
pressure and also produced GOR and WOR
2. Volume in place calculations: N,G, W
. Material balance calculations can be
compared with Volumetric calculations

Reserves
Recovery = Cumulative
production/Volume in place (oil or
gas)
See Table below with notations.

Reserves
Under-saturated Oil Reservoir: See
text on specified the relationship
(equation) between cumulative oil
production (Np) and Initial oil Volume
(N)
Dissolved gas drive reservoir: See
text on the specified relationship
(equation) between cumulative oil
production (Np) and Initial oil Volume
(N)
Primary Recovery, Estimation of Reserves

Oil reservoir associated with an aquifer
A very extensive, very continuous and highly
permeable aquifer guarantees perfect reservoir
pressure maintenance that increase oil recovery.
(Perfect water drive)
A relatively small, non-continuous or mediocre
permeability aquifer can guarantee only limited
pressure maintenance that decreases oil
recovery.
(Partial water drive)
When water flows vertically from an aquifer that is
in contact with a reservoir over its entire length, it
is called a bottom-water drive or bottom aquifer.

Reserves
When water flows lateraly from an aquifer that
surrounds a reservoir length, it is called a
edge-water drive or edge aquifer.
Water flow involves vertical permeabilities with
bottom aquifer
Water flow involves horizontal permeabilities
with edge aquifer
Edge aquifer is more common
See figs. below that shows a description of
both bottom-water drive and edge-water drive
mechanism

Reserves
Bottom-water aquifer drive
Edge-water aquifer drive

Reserves
Calculation of water inflow: See text on the specified
relationship (material balance equation) that can be
used to calculate water influx from an aquifer
Segregation:
Mechanism that occurs due to gravitational forces
allows released gas to rise above oil and be produced
or trapped in an existing gas cap or forms a
secondary gas cap in under-saturated oil reservoir.
This depends on the reservoir pressure and on the
anisotropy ratio of the permeabilities Kv/Kh
When oil replaces the gas it is called concurrent
segregation

Reserves
Dry (or wet) gas reservoir without
water influx: See text on specified the
relationship (material balance
equation) that can be used to
calculate Gas- in -place
Dry (or wet) gas reservoir with water:
See text on specified the relationship
(material balance equation) that can
be used to calculate Gas- in- place

Reserves
Condensate reservoirs:
Contains complex hydrocarbon mixture
At lower pressure, a liquid part (condensate) is deposited in
the reservoir
Gas and Condensate is produced
Normally from deep reservoirs
The mobility of condensate in reservoir and in a well
depends on its saturation (critical vs in-situ saturation)
Higher critical condensate saturations compared to in-situ
saturations results in simultaneous mobility of gas and
condensate phases
Most common is where in-situ saturation is higher than
critical saturation and the condensate is not mobile
Condensate generally immobile in a reservoir and mobile in
a well
Relative permeability of gas and well productivity can be

Reserves
NOTE:
Material balance calculation method is the simplest simulation tool
It does not necessarily account for the geometry, internal
architecture and heterogeneities of the reservoir
Reservoirs used with material balance are considered as large
bubble containing oil, gas, and water (with a single pressure
This method is ideal for relatively homogenous reservoirs with a
simple structure (not common) and reservoirs at the outset of
production (lack of data)
Reservoir drive mechanism must be determined as early as
possible (i.e. for oil reservoir with gas cap, comparing initial
reservoir pressure and bubble point pressure gives indicate if a
well has crossed the gas/oil interface and the resultant drive
mechanism. (Use with caution most reservoirs have variable
bubble point pressure)
An aquifer characteristics must be optimized based on Re/Ri
(expected/Initial recovery) and k (permeability) as soon as possible
with the production history). (i.e. estimates maximize recovery)
Primary Recovery, Estimation of Reserves

Decline Laws:
Used to extrapolate well parameters at the end of
production of the field. (i.e. mainly flow-rate)
Mainly used for small reservoirs or complex
reservoirs
The two basic laws are:
1. Exponential decline of flow rate (water cut and
flowrate can be extrapolated with time).See
relationship in text.
2. Hyperbolic (and Harmonic) decline (water cut and
flowrate can be extrapolated with time). See
relationship in text.

Reserves
Production in Fractured Formations:
Fractured formations can be good/very good producers in
fractured zones and mediocre elsewhere
Typically fractured reservoirs can have permeable or porous
medium with additional fractured networks within the reservoir
Can have additional network of fractures with or without
deposits of chemical in the porous medium of the fractured
reservoir
The nature of fractured formations based on open
fractures/channels, network fractures and chemicals deposits
results to either a porous fractured reservoir or non-porous
fractured reservoir.
Non-porous fractured reservoirs contain less hydrocarbon
volume in place and can have little or no hydrocarbon flow
depending on the network of open/closed fractures when
compared to porous fractured reservoir

Reserves

Reserves
Sw (Initial water saturation) and Pc (capillary pressure) in
fractured reservoirs are negligible. (Capillary mechanism
does not normally exist in fracture)
Some magnitude of order concerning fractures:
1. Block dimension: a few centimeters to a few meters
2. Useful fracture openings: normally a few dozen microns,
sometimes a few millimeters
3. Fracture permeability: a few dozen milli-darcys to a dozen
darcy
4. Matrix permeability: a dozen millidarcys to a dozen darcys
5. Fracture porosity: about 0.01 to 1% (related to the total
volume)
6. Vug porosity: about 1%
7. Matrix porosity: variable, sometimes nil

Reserves
Geological Aspect of Fractures
Methods used for geological information:
1. Visual observation and description of cores
- characterizes fractures by Opening, filing, length, dip and
azimuth
of the fracture plane and distance between two
consecutive
fractures
2. Observation of outcrops from observed core data during well
correlation
- main measurement is fracture density per unit length or
area
3. Rock mechanics model
- Information such as fracture stress (geostatic pressure,
fluid
pressure, tectonic forces associated with distortion of the
fracture unit)

Reserves
Logs:
Two types of instruments can provide
essential data:
1. Production instruments (Flow metering
+ temperature measurement
2. Acoustic (Analysis of wave attenuation)
Seismic instruments in particular can
locate fracture zones and help
supplement core analysis

Reserves
Production Test:
Initial test that shows very high production indexes (PI) materialize
the presence of fractured zones
Drive Mechanisms:
The supervision of a fracture network on a porous matrix represents
the specificity of the system. The analysis of drive mechanism is
based on the supply of one-phase or multi-phase flow from the
blocks to the fractures
Two key mechanism are: Expansion and Exudation
One-Phase flow:
1. Expansion
The expansion is due to the total compressibility of the block +
fracture system (Not different from that same formation without
fractures)

Reserves
Two-phase flow:
1. Expansion
Oil/water: similar to expansion mechanism, except it involves
water rising very fast through the fractures (Affects
production)
Gas/oil: Not much difference from a non-fractured formation
because the main compressibility is due to gas except for the
rapid formation of a secondary gas cap due to the fractures
2. Exudation
Involves the expulsion of hydrocarbons from the block into
the fractures due to a combined action of capillarity forces
(static imbibition) and gravitational forces
Oil/water and water-wet rock: Involves the spontaneous
penetration of water into the block by imbibition and also by
gravity from the top. (Both processes are cumulative)

Reserves
Oil water and oil-wet rock: Capillary forces oppose
water entry into the block. Exudation is possible only if
the gravitational forces prevail and if the blocks are
large in size
Gas/oil: Gas is the non-wetting fluid which results to
opposition between gravity and capillary forces.
Exudation can only occur with very large blocks
NOTE: Exudation is significant in the oil/water case with a
water-wet rock. It is significant for large blocks in other
cases
See the diagram below that summarizes the drive
mechanism in fractured reservoirs (oil with gas cap and
water level here)

Reserves

Reserves
Specific production technique (Horizontal drain

hole)
Well productivity is proportional to h.K (Reservoir
thickness and Permeability)
Well productivity is reduced for a thin reservoir and
rises with the penetration distance into the reservoir
Productivity over a vertical well is (3 to 5) times
Drilling and Completion cost, can be variable, lies
between (1.5 to 2) times that of a vertical well
Fractured reservoirs with sub-vertical fracture
network are ideal for horizontal drain holes because
they intersect a large number of fractures and can
achieve high productivity gain

Reserves
Horizontal drain holes have a better chance of intersecting
high productivity zones in extremely non-porous fractured
reservoir
The productivity index in this reservoirs can be (4 to 10)
times that of a vertical well
Benefits of a Horizontal drain hole (Horizontal well):
They can be placed at the reservoir top to obtain a
sufficient water blanket (away from the O/W or G/W
interface)
The horizontal length stresses the aquifer less
Vertical sweep is more effective and recovery is high
They can be placed away from a gas cap in the lower part
of he oil zone to prevent against gas influxes (No aquifer
present)

Reserves

Secondary and Enhanced Oil

Recovery
Hydrocarbon recovery by natural drive is
the range of 30 % to 40% and is lower for
oil
Secondary recovery (injection of water or
gas) is used to achieve better recovery
after depletion of the natural drive energy
Enhanced oil recovery involves the use of
improved or tertiary methods for higher
recovery

Recovery
Typical applications for secondary recovery and

EOR
Reservoirs with low natural energy; under-saturated
oil, very small or low-permeability aquifer
Low permeability or large oil reservoirs (wide
pressure differences between producing wells and
aquifer or gas cap)
Heterogonous reservoir (local permeability barriers)
Condensate gas reservoirs
Mediocre conventional secondary recovery (need to
improve recovery by EOR process; injection of
water with chemical additives, miscible fluids,
steam, air, e.tc.

Recovery
Secondary and EOR do not concern
dry or wet gas reservoirs
If used in condensate gas reservoir,
the goal is to recover more natural
gasoline by cycling gas
Secondary and EOR methods are
mainly for additional liquid
hydrocarbon recovery

Recovery
Secondary recovery or convectional artificial recovery
methods:
1. Water-flood (Water injection)
2. Flooding by (immiscible) hydrocarbon gases (Gas
injection) i.e. in condensate gas reservoirs: cycling of gas
Enhanced oil recovery or improved or tertiary recovery
methods:
3. Miscible methods (CO2, CH4, e.tc.)
4. Chemical methods
5. Thermal methods: (i.e. steam, in situ combustion) for
heavy oils

Recovery
Factors that Influence
Recovery
This factors affects fluid flow between the producing wells and
injection wells.
A. Reservoir and Fluid Characteristics
1. Reservoir Geology:
- Presence of impermeable barrier between injection and
production wells that affects sweep (fluid flow)with
regards to the injected fluid and oil.
i.e. shale/sandstone or carbonate formation with
sedimented permeable materials and close packed
materials
2. Permeability:
- Good permeability results in large swept of oil volume for
the same volume of injected displacement fluid
- Also provides high fluid flow-rate (allows for increased well
spacing and decrease in required flooding pressure)

Recovery
- Heterogeneous reservoirs with different
permeabilities affects fluid flow (Displacement
fluid) compared to permeable formations. This
condition is unfavorable for fluid injection
between injection wells and production wells
for oil recovery.
2. Viscosity of Fluids and Mobility Ratio
- Amount of oil not recovered (Trapped) is higher
for a more viscous oil compared to a less viscous
fluid

Recovery
NOTE: Recovery is higher with regards to the
reservoir and fluid characteristics, if:
1. Few or no barriers
2. Good or high K
3. Narrow range of heterogeneities
4. High angle dip
5. Low viscosity: light oil
6. High viscosity of injected fluid (advantage
of injected water over injected gas)

Recovery
B. Injection Characteristics:
1. Injected fluid Volume:
-if volume is higher, the injection volume will
depend on the sources (aquifer level, associated
gas or gas bearing zones), and is not possible to
maintain pressure
- If injection volume, in reservoir condition is
equivalent to oil, gas and water produced volume,
the pressure is maintained
- Better injection volume for displacement results
to maximum oil sweep.

Recovery
2. Type of Fluid
- Injection is more effective, if injected fluid is

more viscous
- Water injection good for light oil, not
effective for more viscous oil
- Gas injection not good for oil (Gas viscosity is very low)
3. Injection Patterns
- Layout of injection and production wells depends on:
reservoir geology, fluid content, volume of impregnated
rock that must be swept.
- Two types of injection patterns are:
1. Grouped flood (injection wells are grouped together)
- Ideal for fairly high-dip reservoirs where injection wells can be
placed to allow for regular displacement due to gravitational forces
- Also, suitable for reservoirs with gas cap and/or an aquifer (Gas injection into
a
gas cap or water injection into an aquifer (peripheral flood) to allow for a slow
and uniform breakthrough (more oil recovery)
2. Dispersed flood (injection and production wells are in alternate arrangement)

Recovery
forces can be used and a limited zone is
effectively flooded, particularly in low
permeability reservoir or heterogeneous
reservoirs.
- In the case, production and injection wells are
laid out in a fairly regular pattern (Dispersed
flood in oil zone)
- Number of patterns used are laid out: In a line
or alternate arrangement (five spot, seven spot
or nine spot, i.e. 5 wells, 7 wells or 9 wells)
which involves the ratio of number of injection to
production wells (1/1, 1/2 and 1/3 respectively,
i.e. how production wells will be covered by an
injection well in the patterns)

Recovery

Recovery
NOTE: Injection Well Pattern:
A. Grouped or Local Flood:
- Referred as Peripheral flood (Water) or Central flood (Gas)
- Ideal in reservoirs with gravitational forces and low pressure gradients (high
K)
- Well site choice depends on fluid type injected
Advantages:
1.Good for front with wide areas (allows slow movement with respect to injected
volume)
2. Countercurrent gravity vector
3. No relative permeability (allows maximum injectivity)
B. Dispersed Flood in oil:
- Valid in mediocre permeability
- Used Offshore (shorter interwell distance)
Geometric Patterns:
1. In line: Straight or staggered
2. Five spot, Nine spot, Seven spot patterns allows for i.e.
number of injection wells
: 1, 1/3, 1/2 respectively
number of production wells
Recommendation: Five spot or staggered lines for water injection
Nine spot or staggered lines for gas injection

Recovery
Analysis of Efficiencies:
-Involves the efficiency of flooding as it relates to the recovery
1. Injection efficiency:
- Total efficiency is the recovery factor (zone
subjected to flooding) in reservoir conditions
Total Efficiency E = (Soi is at the start of flooding)

Also, Total efficiency can be defined as the product of the flowing three
efficiencies
E = EA X EV X ED (Represents oil recovery fro zones subjected to flooding)
2. Areal Sweep Efficiency: Involves area covered from injection that maximizes
recovery.
EA =
- Depends on time (volume injected), well pattern and mobility ratio.
- Increases with time (volume injected), different for 5 spot compared to 7 or 9
spot; or in line and decreases with increase in mobility ratiJ

Recovery
3.
Vertical Efficiency (or Invasion) Ev: Involves flooding in
a vertical direction that maximizes recovery
- Ratio of the area swept to the total area for a vertical
cross-section
Ev =
- Increases as a function of time (volume injected) and

decreases with increase mobility ratio (M)
- Product of EA and EV (referred as sweep(volumetric)
efficiency)
See diagram below:

Recovery

Recovery
4.Displacement Efficiency ED: Involves the effective
sweeping of oil volume compared to the initial oil
ED =
Soi = 1 Swi
Som = 1 SDM (SDM is the mean
saturation of displacing fluid behind the front)
- Depends on time (volume injected), irreducible
water saturation and oil (or gas) saturations
- Increases with time (volume injected)

Recovery
In conclusion:
- Water-flooding (water injection) is used for reservoir pressure
maintenance
- May be dispersed type in oil zone or peripheral type in aquifer
The technical and economic aspects:
Technical aspect: Selection:
- Based on oil viscosity (Good oil recovery efficiency with water flooding
for light oil compared to heavy oil)
- Based on water source, which is usually aquifer levels in shallow
water, sea-water in offshore drilling or surface water onshore (lakes, rivers)
-Based on reservoir heterogenueousity (Water-flooding is good for
water-wet heterogeneous reservoir rocks)
Economic aspect: Higher investment for water-flooding compared to gas
flooding (require more water-flooded wells compared to gas flooded wells
since water mobility and injectivity is lower), however the injected fluid
flow-rate depends on the injection pressure.

Recovery
Time and Start of Flooding: See text on
comments as discussed.
Implementation: See text on

Recovery
Gas Injection (Non-miscible):
- Only attractive for light oil (low viscosity oil)
- Sweep efficiency is much lower than that of water
- Injection is performed in either the gas cap (local) or directly
into the oil (dispersed)
- Injection gas consist mostly of hydrocarbons: reservoir
production gas
- Reservoir pressure can be slowed down, when no outside gas
source is available. Not efficient compared to the use of
injection gas
- Gas injection can be advantageous compared to water injection:
1. If a gas cap is present
2. If oil is light (solution GOR is high and oil viscosity is low)
3. Reservoir permeability is high
-Good recovery vertical sweep of oil by gas cap and injected gas
in an oil reservoir can be produced after breakthrough (Produced

Recovery
Economic Aspect:
- Few new wells are drilled for gas injection and
it allows production wells to be converted as
gas injection wells when gas is trapped in a gas
cap
- Gas injection in oil zone (requires nine spot
pattern) and uses fewer injection wells
compared to water-flooding (water injection).
However gas recompression cost for gas
injection can be higher compared to using
water.

Recovery
Implementation: See text on
See table below on Comparison of
water-flooding and Gas Injection

Recovery

Recovery
Gas Cycling in Retrograde
Condensate Gas Reservoirs
- Involves the used of dry gas for
condensate recovery (Highly valuable
product)
- Injection wells are far from production
wells
(to avoid any premature breakthrough
of gas)

Recovery
Enhanced Oil Recovery:
- Used due to further increase oil recovery (i.e. secondary recovery of
oil in oil reservoir is about 25 to 50%) because of incomplete sweep of
the reservoir and trapping of residual oil.
Three enhanced oil recovery methods are:
1. Miscible Method (i.e. CO2, CH4 e.tc)
-Involves the use of an injected fluid (gas) miscible with oil
2. Chemical Methods
- Involves the use of chemicals injected in water or more rarely to
gas (produces foam)
The two types used are:
1. Microemulsions: aims at improving displacement efficiency
2. Polymers: aims at improving sweep efficiency by raising the water
viscosity

Recovery
3) Thermal Methods:
- Involves the use of A) Steam injection or B) in-situ
combustion for mainly heavy oil recovery.
- Helps reduce heavy oil viscosity for improved oil
flow recovery by increasing the reservoir temperature
- Also improves the reservoir fluidity (cracks heavy
components)
- See the table below on characteristics of heavy oil
A. Steam Injection:
- Can be done by 1)Well stimulation and 2) Injection
with drainage between injection and production wells.

Recovery

Recovery
Well Stimulation methods:
1) Heating of the well by steam injection
2) Alternate injection (heating) and production
cycles
- PI is often improved by 200 to 500%
B. Steam Injection (Injection with drainage between
injection and production wells)
-) Involves alternation of production/injection wells
-) Most widely used compared to other EOR methods
See the information below about Steam injection:

Recovery

Recovery
B. In situ Combustion:
- Involves the use of fire with injected air downhole
to increase downhole temperature in reservoirs
- Helps reduce the high viscosity of heavy oil
- Two methods are a) Forward Combustion: fire is
started downhole at the point where air is injected
and b) Reserve Combustion: Air is injected until it
reaches the production wells and the fire is started
with an electrical system downhole
See the information below on Forward combustion
method
Note: Reserve method very little used because it is
difficult to apply

Recovery

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Principles of Reservoir

What is Reservoir Engineering?

1. A reservoir image. (The Volume in place)

- After a well is discovered operations

Reservoir Geology and

Reservoir Image (Geological Model)

Reservoir Geology and

Reservoir Geology and

Reservoir Geology and

The Reservoir Image (Geologic model) is used to:

Reservoir Geology and

Reservoir Geology and

Reservoir Geology and

Reservoir Geology and

Reservoir Geology and

Reservoir Geology and

Reservoir Geology and

Reservoir Geology and

Reservoir Geology and

Reservoir Geology and

An area bounded by a barrier lying upwards from flow that

Reservoir Geology and

Reservoir Geology and

Reservoir Geology and

Reservoir Seismic Survey

The objective of seismic techniques and

Reservoir Geology and

Reservoir Geology and

The picked up seismic reflections are seismic profiles in vertical time

Reservoir Geology and

Reservoir Geology and

Vertical Seismic Profile (VSP) and Offset Vertical

Reservoir Geology and

Characterization of Reservoir Rocks

- Two of the three values Vp, Vs and VT are determined.

D. A special method: Fluid saturation

Characterization of Reservoir Rocks

Cylindrical steady state flow:

If Darcys law applies:

a reservoir depends on capillarity properties of rocks

Equilibrium of an initial-state reservoir:

See the methods used to obtain capillary pressure

Determination of in-situ saturation:

Characterization of Reservoir Rock

Hence you can use:

Repeat Formation Tester (RFT):

Fluids and PVT Studies

Fluids and PVT Studies

The following illustrates the fluid behavior of pure

Pressure/Specific Volume Diagram/(Clapeyon

Fluids and PVT Studies

Fluids and PVT Studies

Fluids and PVT Studies

Fluids and PVT Studies

Fluids and PVT Studies

Fluids and PVT Studies

Fluids and PVT Studies

Fluids and PVT Studies

Fluids and PVT Studies

Fluids and PVT Studies

Fluids and PVT Studies

Fluids and PVT Studies

Fluids and PVT Studies

Fluids and PVT Studies