DEBR BIRHAN

UNIVERSITY
construction
technology and Management
Surveying COTM 3191
Pr.By tewodros Z.(Msc)

BRAINSTORMING

what does Surveying mean?

Learning outcomes
Up on successful compilation of the course the trainees will be
able to:
Explain the comprehensive theories and applications of surv
eying
Identify various types of surveys
Identify type and sources of errors
Acquire an awareness of the limitations of the basic surveyin
g instruments and the possible errors that could arise.

Apply geometric and trigonometric principles to basic su

rveying calculations.
Keep accurate, legible and complete notes in a well-pre
3
pared field book.

 Understand field procedures in basic types of surveys, an

d the responsibilities of a surveying team.
Understand the roles and responsibilities of surveying pr
ofessionals.

Contents on Training
I.

BASIC CONCEPTS OF SURVEYING

II. LINEAR MEASUREMENT

III. MEASURING VERTICAL DISTANCE
IV. ANGLES AND DIRECTIONS

Basic Surveying
Definition
Classification
Primary Classification
Secondary Classification
Based on Instrument
Based on purpose

Fundamental principles of Surveying

Object and Uses of Surveying

The role of Surveying in Civil Engineering

Definition of Surveying
Surveying is the science and art of determining
the relative positions of natural and man-made
features above, on, or beneath the earths
surface, and the presentation of this information
either graphically or numerically.
The relative positions are determined by
measuring horizontal distance, vertical distances
(elevations), horizontal angles and vertical angles
accurately using various surveying instruments.
After taking the measurements in the field,
computations are done and the plans and maps
are prepared in the office.

Why Surveying is an art,

Science,
Relative position?

Contd
Why it is an art?
Because only a surveyor who possesses
through
understanding
of
surveying
techniques will be able to determine the most
efficient methods required to obtain optimal
results over a wide variety of surveying
problems.
Why it is a Science?
Because
the
use
of
mathematical
techniques to analyze field data, accuracy
and reliability depends on understanding
scientific principles underlying and affecting

Contd
Why relative positions?

The primary aims of surveying are:

To measure the Horizontal Distance between

points.
To measure the Vertical Elevation between

points.
To find out the Relative Direction of lines by

measuring horizontal angles with reference to

any arbitrary/ fixed direction

 After taking the measurements in the field, comp

utations are done and the plans and the maps a
re prepared in the office.
These plans and maps are used for:
-

planning of engineering works

making boundaries

computation of areas and volumes, and

various other purposes.

 Surveying also includes the art of setting out or locati

ng the points on the ground from the plan or map.
Surveying, although simple in concept, requires grea
t skill and practice for doing the work accurately and
economically.
It requires basic knowledge of various disciplines suc
h as mathematics, physics, geodesy and astronomy.

 The

need for accurate surveying is increasing

ra

pidly with the development in technology.

The construction of modern buildings, highways,

railways, high dams, long bridges, and tunnels re
quires accurate surveying.

As the cost of the land and property is increasing

rapidly, high accuracy is required in making the b
oundaries and the land subdivision.

Types of Surveying
Classification Types
Primary Classification
Secondary Classification
o Based on Instrument
o Based on purpose

Primary Classification
The approximate shape of the earth can best
be defined as imperfect sphere. But, most
of the civil engineering works, concern only
with a small portion of the earth which seems
to be a plane surface.
Thus, based upon the consideration of the
shape of the earth, surveying is broadly
divided into two types
Plane Surveying

Primary Classification:

Plane Surveying

Fundamental assumptions in Plane surveying:

All distances and directions are horizontal;
The direction of the plumb line is same at all
points within the limits of the survey;
All angles (both horizontal and vertical) are
plane angles;
Elevations are with reference to a datum.

Primary Classification:

Geodetic Surveying

In this branch of surveying, the true shape of

the earth is taken into consideration.
This type of surveying is being carried out for
highly precise work and is adopted for
surveying of large area.

Secondary Classification:
Chain Survey
Compass survey
Plane Table survey
Theodolite survey
Tacheometric Survey
Photographic survey

Instrument

Some Surveying Instrument

Secondary Classification:

Purpose

Based on the purpose (for which surveying is being

conducted), Surveying has been classified into:
Control surveying : To establish horizontal and
vertical positions of control points.
Land surveying : To determine the boundaries and
areas of parcels of land, also known as property survey,
boundary survey or cadastral survey.
Topographic survey : To prepare a plan/ map of a
region which includes natural as well as and man-made
features including elevation.

Secondary Classification:

Purpose

Engineering survey : To collect requisite data for

planning, design and execution of engineering projects.
Three broad steps are:
o Reconnaissance survey : To explore site conditions and availability
of infrastructures.
o Preliminary survey : To collect adequate data to prepare plan / map
of area to be used for planning and design.
o Location survey : To set out work on the ground for actual
construction / execution of the project.

Secondary Classification:

Purpose

Route survey: To plan, design, and laying out of route

such as highways, railways, canals, pipelines, and other
linear projects.
Construction surveys: Surveys which are required for
establishment of points, lines, grades, and for staking
out engineering works (after the plans have been
prepared and the structural design has been done).
Astronomic surveys: To determine the latitude,
longitude (of the observation station) and azimuth (of a
line through observation station) from astronomical
observation.
Mine surveys: To carry out surveying specific for
opencast and underground mining purposes.

Principles of Surveying
The fundamental principles upon which the
surveying is being carried out are:
Working from whole to part.
After deciding the position of any point, its
reference must be kept from at least two
permanent stations whose position have
already been well defined.
The purpose of working from whole to part is:
to localize the errors and
to control the accumulation of errors.

Object and Uses of Surveying

Object of surveying is to show relative positions of
various objects of an area on paper and produce plan or
map of that area. Various uses of surveying are listed
below:
Plans prepared to record property lines of private,
public and government lands help in avoiding
unnecessary controversies.

Maps prepared for marking boundaries of countries,

states, districts etc., avoid disputes.

Locality plans help in identifying location of houses

and offices in the area.

Object and Uses of Surveying

Road maps help travellers and tourist.
Topographic maps showing natural features like

rivers, streams, hills, forests help in planning irrigation

projects and flood control measures.
For planning and estimating project works like roads,

bridges, railways, airports, water supply and waste

water disposal surveying is required.
Marine and hydrographic survey helps in planning

navigation routes and harbours.

Object and Uses of Surveying

Military survey is required for strategic planning.
Mine surveys are required for exploring mineral wealth.
Geological surveys are necessary for determining

different strata in the earth crust so that proper

location is found for reservoirs.
Archeological surveys are useful for unearthing relics of

antiquity.
Astronomical survey helps in the study of movements

of planets and for calculating local and standard times.

The role of Surveying in Civil Engineering Practice

The planning and design of all Civil Engineering

projects such as:
construction of highways,
bridges,
tunnels,
dams,
etc. are based upon surveying measurements.

The role of Surveying in Civil Engineering Practice

Thus, surveying is a basic requirement for all

Civil Engineering projects.
Other principal works in which surveying is
primarily utilized are:
to fix the national and state boundaries;
to establish control points;
to collect field data;
to prepare plan or map of the area surveyed;
to analyze and to calculate the field parameters for

setting out operation of actual engineering works.

The role of Surveying in Civil Engineering Practice

Surveying activities during the construction process
Before
Construction

Under construction

After construction

Planning and
data collection

Setting out on each

phase
of construction

Final (as-built)
plan or map
on the construction

Field checks of
construction

Presenting
documentation
to the client

Providing data
and services to
the client

Deformation
Monitoring/
Load Tests

Observations
in the field
Processing the
observations
(office)
Drawing maps,
plans or providing
numerical data
Presenting
documentation
to the client

Linear Measurement

Basic measurements in surveying

Surveying basically consists of the following four meas
urements
1. Horizontal distance:
Measured in a horizontal plane.
If a distance is measured along a slope, it is reduced to its h
orizontal equivalent.

31

2. Vertical distances:
Measured along the direction of gravity at that poi
nt.
The vertical distances are measured to determine t
he difference in elevations (height) of the various
points.

32

3. Horizontal angle:
Measured between two lines in a plane that is hor
izontal at that point.
4. Vertical angle:
Measured between two lines in a plane that is ver
tical at a point.

33

Units of measurements
There are two systems of measurements:
M.K.S (meter, kilogram, second): Metric system
(SI = System International)
F.P.S (foot ,pound, second): British System

34

a) The SI unit of length is the base unit meter

(m).
1 decameter= 101m = 1 dam
1 hectometer = 102m = 1 hm
1 kilometer = 103m = 1 km
1 megameter = 106m = 1 Mm
1 gigameter = 109m = 1 Gm
1 terameter = 1012m = 1 Tm
1 decimeter = 10-1m = 1 dm
1 centimeter= 10-2m = 1 cm
1 millimeter = 10-3m = 1 mm
1 micrometer = 10-6m = 1 m
1 nanometer = 10-9m = 1 nm
1 picometer = 10-12m = 1 pm

b) The SI unit for area is the derived units squar

e meter (m2)
1 hectare = 104m2 = 100 m * 100m = 1 ha
1 square kilometer = 106m2 = 1000m * 1000m
=
1km2 = 100ha
c) The SI unit for volume is the derived unit
cubic meter (m3)
1000 cu millimeters = 1 cubic centimeter
1000 cu centimeters = 1 cubic decimeter
1000 cu decimeters = 1 cubic meter

d) The SI units for plane angles

There are three systems in use for angular u
nit, namely
Radian(rad).
sexagesimal graduation, and
centesimal graduation
1, radian: In a unit circle with the radius 1 the full
circle equals 2 rad.
r=1

C = 2

Cont
Sexagesimal graduation: The circle is divided into
360
parts.
1 full circle = 3600 (degrees)
10 = 1/360 full circle = 2/360 rad = /180 rad
10 = 60 (minutes)
1 = 60 (seconds)
Centesimal graduation: The circle is divided into
400 parts.
1 full circle = 400 gon
1 gon = 1/400 full circle = 2/400 rad = /200 rad
1 gon = 100 cgon (centigon)
1 cgon = 10 mgon (milligon)

Conversion of
units

c) Conversion of
a) Conversion of
volume
length
1 cu in = 16.387 cu
1 inch = 2.54 cm
cm
1 foot = 0.3048m
1 cu ft = 0.0283 c
1 mile = 1.6093 km
um

b) Conversion of area
d) Conversion of
1 sq in = 6.4516 sq
angles
Example:
cm
1 48.0488
gon = 9/10
1.Convert
from gon
to degree:
gon
1sq ft = 0.0929
sq m
degto degree,
2.
degree
decimal
value
1 from
sq mile
= 2.59
sq
minutes,
seconds: 43.24391 deg = 10/9
km

Example:
from gon to degree: 48.0488 gon
48.0488 gon * 9/10 = 43.2439
from degree to gon: 43.2439
43.2439 * 10/9 = 48.0488 gon
from degree decimal value to degree, minutes, seconds:
43.2439
43 + 0.2439
0.2439 * 60 = 14.6340
0.6340* 60 = 38
result: 43 14 38
from degree, minutes, seconds to degree decimal value:
43 14 38
43 + 14/60 + 38/ 3600 = 43.2439

The SI units for plane Angles

There are three systems in use for angular unit, namely sexag
esimal graduation, centesimal graduation and radian.
i) Sexagesimal graduation: a circle is divided in to 360 parts

1 full circle = 3600 (degrees)

ii) Centesimal graduation: The circle is divided in to 400 parts.

1 full circle = 400 gon/grad

41

Error in Measurement:
The word measurement is derived from the
Greek word "metron," which means a limited
proportion
In science, measurement is the process of
estimating or determining the magnitude of a
quantity
The term measurement can also be refers to a
specific result obtained from a quantity

Error in Measurement:
A measurement usually differs from its true
value
The difference between a measured and its
true value is called the measurement error
Thus, if x is a given measurement and xt is the
true value, then the error e is given by:
e = x - xt
error = measured value true value
Correction is the term more popularly being used to
define the magnitude of error but opposite in sign

Source of Errors:
Depending on sources of origin, errors in measurements
fall into three classes.
They are:

o Natural Errors
o Instrumental Errors
o Personal Errors

Source of Errors: Natural Errors

Natural Errors: These are caused due to variations in
nature i.e.,
variations in:

o
o
o
o
o
o

wind,
temperature,
humidity,
refraction,
gravity and
magnetic field of the earth.

Source of Errors: Instrumental Errors

Instrumental Errors:
These result from

o imperfection in the construction,

o adjustment of surveying instruments,
o movement of their individual parts.

Source of Errors: Personal Errors

Personal Errors:
These arise from limitations of the human senses of:

o sight,

o touch,
o hearing.

Source of Errors: Summery

Types of Errors:
Errors are traditionally been classified into three types.
Gross Error,

Systematic Error,
Random Error,

Types of Errors: Gross errors

Gross errors also known as blunders or mistakes,
Are results from Carelessness on the part of observer
in taking or recording reading;
For example:
o Faults in equipments,
o Adoption of wrong technique,
o Misinterpretation,
The blunders or mistakes result into large errors
and thus can easily be detected by comparing with other
types of errors.

Types of Errors: Systematic

After mistakes have been detected and eliminated
from the measurements, the remaining errors are usually
classified either as systematic or random error
depending on the characteristics of errors.
Systematic errors occur according to a system.
These errors follow a definite pattern.
Thus, if an experiment is repeated:
Under the same conditions,
Same pattern of systematic errors reoccur.

Types of Errors: Systematic

These errors are dependent on:
the observer,
the instrument used, and
on the physical environment of the experiment.
Systematic errors are dealt with mathematically using
functional relationships or models.

Types of Errors: Random

After mistakes are eliminated and systematic
errors are corrected, a survey measurement is
associated with random error only.
This error is small and is equally liable to be plus or
minus.
Random errors are unpredictable and they cannot
be evaluated or quantified exactly.
Random errors are determined through statistical
analysis

Accuracy:
The accuracy of a set of repeated observations is being
defined as amount of closeness of their mean to the
population or distribution mean, i.e., closeness of the
mean of observations to the true value.
Accuracy refers to the degree of perfection obtained in
measurements.
It denotes how close a given measurement is to the
true value of the quantity.

Precision:
Precision pertains to the degree of closeness of
observations among each other in a set of repeated
observations of a measurement.
Thus, if a set of observations for the same parameter
are clustered together, i.e., observations have small
deviations from their sample mean, then the
observations are said to have been obtained with high
precision.
Precision is the degree of refinement with which a given
quantity is measured.
If a quantity is measured several times and the values
obtained are very close to each other, the precision is
said to be high.

ACCURACY

Low

High

PRECISION

Low

High

56

Accuracy Vs Precision

e
s
i
c
r
e
Ex

UNIT TWO
LINER MEASURMENT

Measurement of Horizontal Distance:

In surveying there are several methods for measurement
of distance.
These are:
Direct methods,
Optical methods and
Electronic method.
In any work, the choice of a method depends on many
factors like:
o field condition,
o accuracy required,
o availability of resources (instruments, time, skill, fund
etc).

 Direct measurements: distances are measured on t

he ground with the help of a chain or a tape or any
other instrument.
Optical: observations are taken through a telescope
and calculations are done for the distances, such as
in tachometry and triangulation.
Electro-Magnetic Distance Measuring (EDM): distanc
es are measured with instruments that rely on prop
agation, reflection and subsequent reception of radi
o waves, light waves or infrared waves.
60

Direct Measurement:
When the distance between points / stations are
measured directly, usually by using tape, is known as
direct method.
When the distance to be measured is more than a
tape length, a straight line is required to be laid between
the points/ stations along which measurements are to be
carried out.
The process of laying out a straight line between points
is known as ranging.

Direct Ranging:
When the end stations are inter-visible, ranging is
being carried out directly.
The intermediate points are placed at distances having
interval less than one tape length.

Indirect Ranging:
When the end stations between which a straight line is
to be laid, are not inter-visible, indirect method of
ranging is being adopted.
Figure below shows the field operations involved in reciprocal ranging. Let
A and B are the two end points whose distance is required to be found and
are not inter visible. To fix the intermediate points in a straight line between
these points, two more points say C and D are chosen in such a way that D &
B are visible from C and C & A from D. Then, direct ranging is being carried
out alternatively along DCA and CDB for a number of times so that ACDB lie
in a straight line.

Taping:
Taping involves measurement of the distance with
tapes (steel/linen), either by placing it on the ground or
sometimes by getting it suspended between points.
Additional equipments employed during taping are:
o plumb bob,
o the hand level,
o pegs/ pins and
o range pole (or flag or ranging rod) etc.
During measurement of distance, various obstacles may be encountered in
the field.

Taping:
For example:

Mistakes in Taping:
During taping, mistakes generally made by individuals
are:

Adding or dropping a full length of tape

Adding or dropping a part of the length of tape
Other points incorrectly taken as 0 or 30 meter marks on tape
Reading numbers incorrectly
Calling numbers incorrectly or not clearly

Electronic Measurement of Distance:

EDM instrument

 The approximate methods are commonly used in rec

onnaissance surveying for the measurement of horiz
ontal distances.
These methods are also use sometimes to detect lar
ge mistakes in linear measurements obtained with a
tape.
1.Pacing: A person can determine the distance walked
by Counting the number of paces made.
The distance can be obtained by multiplying the nu
mber of paces by the average length of the paces.
68

2. Measuring wheel: A measuring wheel consists of a

wheel mounted on a lower end of rod about 1 m lon
g through a fork.
The upper end of the rod has a handle.
The wheel is pushed along the ground. The distance
traversed is recorded on the dial attached the whee
l. (see, Figure bellow)

69

3. Speedometer: All automobiles have a speedometer

to indicate the speed and the distance travelled.

If the ground is smooth, the Speedometer can be u

sed to measure the distance.

70

Tapes

Measuring tapes can be classified into 5 types dep

ending upon the material used in their manufactur
e.

1. Liner or cloth tapes

2. Glass-fibre tapes
3. Metallic tapes
4. Steel tapes
5. Invar tapes
71

1. Linen or cloth tapes: These tapes are made of linen or cloth.

. The tape is light and handy but not very accurate.
. These tapes are available in length of 10m 20m, 25m and 30m
.
1. Glassfibre tapes: These tapes are similar to linen and plastic c
oated tapes but they are made of glass-fibre.
. The tapes are quite flexible, strong and non-Conductive
1. Metallic tapes: These tapes are similar to linen tapes but are m
ade of water proof fabric or glass-fibre in which metallic wires
are interwoven.
2. Steel tapes: The steel tapes are the most commonly used tapes
in surveying. They are more accurate than metallic tapes. The s
teel tapes are made of steel or stainless steel strip.
3. Invar Tapes: Invar tapes are made of an alloy of steel (64%) an
d nickel (36%), which has a very low coefficient of thermal exp
ansion. Invar tapes are used for linear measurements of very hi
72

Taping accessories
In addition to a tape, the following small instruments
and accessories are required for the determination o
f the length of a line.
Arrows (Chain pins)
Pegs
Ranging rods
Plumb bobs or rod levels

73

 Arrows (Chain pins): They are used to mark the posit

ion of the ends of the tape on the ground.
Pegs: Wooden pegs are used to mark the position of th
e survey stations or the end points of the survey line.
Ranging Rods: The process of locating a number of po
ints on a long survey line is called ranging.
Ranging rods are used to locate intermediate points suc
h that these points lie on the straight line joining the en
d stations. Ranging rods are made of well-seasoned, str
aight-grained timber.
74

 Plumb bobs: The plumb bob plays a very important role in

surveying.
As a freely suspended plumb bob always points towards t
he gravity, it indicates the direction of the vertical line.
In linear measurements plumb bobs are used for measuri
ng distances on sloping ground.

plumb bob
Ranging rods hold by ranging rod tripods
75

Taping horizontal distance

Taping horizontal distance over level ground

The simplest taping operation is measuring over level gro

und where the tape can be stretched out while fully suppor
ted by the ground as shown in the figure below.

Range pole is set at each end of the line and the tape is un
wind and laid out on the ground with the zero ends forwar
d.
The front tape person then takes the zero end of the tape
hands one pin to the rear tape person, and moves forward
along the line.

76

77

Taping horizontal distance over sloping ground

Consider two point A and B which are several tape le
ngths apart along a slope.
The horizontal distance between the two points can b
e measured by supporting the tape at the two ends o
nly, as shown in the figure below.
Assuming that the distance is to be measured downh
ill, the front tape person holds one end of the tape at
a comfortable height above the ground so that the st
raight line joining the two ends are approximately lev
el.
Tension is applied and the position of the end of the t
ape is transferred by means of a plumb bob to the gr
ound.
78

 The tape is stretched a second time and the mean of

the two measurements taken.
It is hardly possible or good practice to hold the tape
more than 5 ft above the ground; if the slope is mor
e than 5ft per tape length it is necessary to break ta
pe.

79

80

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