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Nervous System
2
Nervous
Brain.
Spinal cord.
Cranial nerves.
Spinal nerves.
Neurons
Basic
Respond
Neurons
Nutrition center
Cell bodies within CNS clustered into nuclei, and in PNS in
ganglia
Dendrites:
(continued)
Axon:
Axoplasmic flow:
Axonal transport:
Neurons
(continued)
Motor or efferent:
Association or
interneurons:
Based on the # of
processes that
extend from cell
body
Pseudounipolar:
Bipolar neurons:
Have 2 processes
Sensory neurons
Multipolar:
Motor neuron
Nodes
of Ranvier:
Satellite
cells:
cells:
Insulation
Nerve Regeneration
Schwann
cells:
Nerve Regeneration
Absence of continuous
basement membrane
Oligodendrocytes
molecules inhibit
neuronal growth
(continued)
Neurotrophins
Promote
neuron growth
Nerve growth factors include:
Fetus:
Neurotrophins
(continued)
Adult:
Myelin-associated
inhibitory proteins:
Astrocytes:
(continued)
(continued)
Microglia:
Phagocytes, migratory
Ependymal
cells:
Secrete CSF
Line ventricles
Function as neural stem cells
Can divide and progeny differentiate
Blood-Brain Barrier
Capillaries
Molecules
Diffusion
Active transport
Endocytosis
Exocytosis
Excitability/irritability:
Increase in membrane
permeability for specific ion can be
measured by placing 2 electrodes
(1 inside and 1 outside the cell).
Depolarization:
Repolarization:
Hyperpolarization:
(continued)
(continued)
VG
+ feedback loop
K+ channels open
(continued)
Membrane Permeabilites
AP
is produced
by an increase in
Na+ permeability
After short delay,
increase in K+
permeability
All or none:
(continued)
Recruitment:
Refractory Periods
Absolute refractory
period:
Axon membrane is
incapable of producing
another AP.
Relative refractory
period:
An
Conduction in an
Unmyelinated Axon
Cable spread of
depolarization with influx of
Na+ depolarizes the
adjacent region membrane,
propagating the AP
Conduction rate is slow
Occurs in 1 direction;
previous region is in its
refractory period
Synapse
Electrical Synapse
Impulses can be
regenerated without
interruption in adjacent
cells
Gap junctions:
Examples:
Chemical Synapse
Terminal bouton is
separated from
postsynaptic cell by
synaptic cleft
NTs are released from
synaptic vesicles
Vesicles fuse with
axon membrane and
NT released by
exocytosis
Amount of NTs
released depends
upon frequency of AP
Synaptic Transmission
Synaptic Transmission
NTs
(continued)
cleft
NT (ligand) binds to specific receptor proteins
in postsynaptic cell membrane
Chemically-regulated gated ion channels open
EPSP: depolarization.
IPSP: hyperpolarization.
Neurotransmitter
transmission
inactivated to end
Chemical Synapses
EPSP (excitatory
postsynaptic
potential):
Depolarization
IPSP (inhibitory
postsynaptic
potential):
Hyperpolarization
Acetylcholine (ACh) as NT
ACh
Nicotinic
ACh receptors:
Muscarinic
ACh receptors:
Produces EPSPs
Only 1 subunit
Ion channels are separate proteins located away from the
receptors
Binding of ACh activates alpha G-protein subunit
Alpha subunit dissociates
Alpha subunit or the beta-gamma complex diffuses
through membrane until it binds to ion channel, opening it
Acetylcholinesterase (AChE)
ACh in CNS
Cholinergic
neurons:
Use ACh as NT
Axon bouton synapses with dendrites or cell
body of another neuron
First
ACh in PNS
Somatic
Depolarization
to end plate
Monoamines as NT
Monoamine
NTs:
Epinephrine
Norepinephrine
Serotonin
Dopamine
Released
vesicles
Diffuse across the synaptic cleft
Interact with specific receptors in
postsynaptic membrane
Inhibition of Monoamines
as NT
Reuptake of
monoamines into
presynaptic membrane
Enzymatic degradation of
monoamines in
presynaptic membrane by
MAO
Enzymatic degradation
of catecholamines in
postsynaptic membrane
by COMT
Mechanism of Action
Serotonin as NT
Dopamine an NT
Norepinephrine (NE) as NT
NT
CNS:
General behavior
Amino Acids as NT
Hyperpolarization.
Polypeptides as NT
CCK:
Substance
P:
Synaptic
plasticity (neuromodulating
effects):
Polypeptides as NT
Endogenous opiods:
Brain produces its own analgesic endogenous morphinelike compounds, blocking the release of substance P
Neuropeptide Y:
NO:
Carbon
monoxide:
EPSP
No threshold
Decreases resting
membrane
potential
Closer to threshold
Graded in
magnitude
Have no refractory
period
Can summate
Synaptic Integration
Numerous boutons
converge on a single
postsynaptic neuron
(distance)
Temporal summation:
Successive waves
of neurotransmitter
release (time)
Long-Term Potentiation
May favor transmission along frequently used
neural pathways
Neuron is stimulated at high frequency,
enhancing excitability of synapse
Synaptic Inhibition
Presynaptic inhibition:
Postsynaptic inhibition
(IPSPs):
No threshold.
Hyperpolarize postsynaptic
membrane.
Increase membrane potential.
Can summate.
No refractory period.
TERIMA KASIH
THE ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAM
(EEG)
Dr H SONNY PAMUJI LAKSONO. M.Kes. AIFM
Electroencephalogram
(EEG)
The EEG an
oscillating voltage
recorded on scalp
surface
Reflects Large #
Neurons
Is small voltage
Bands of activity
Delta 0.5-4 Hz
Theta 4-8 Hz
Alpha 8-13 Hz
Beta 13-30 Hz
Gamma 30-50 Hz
ELEKTROENSEFALOGRAF
Alpha
Recording EEG
Recording EEG
Electrodes, Electrolyte,
Preparation
Reduce impedance
Ag-AgCl preferred, tin
OK
Electrolyte: ionic,
conductive
Affixing
Subcutaneous
needle electrodes
Collodion
EC-2 paste
Electrocap
Chewing
Yawn
EEG
Electroencephalogram (EEG) adalah suatu
test untuk mendeteksi kelainan aktivitas
elektrik otak (Campellone, 2006)
Membedakan antara Electroencephalogram
dan Electroencephalografi.
Electroencephalografi adalah prosedur
pencatatan aktifitas listrik otak dengan alat
pencatatan yang peka sedangkan grafik
yang dihasilkannya disebut
Electroencephalogram.
GELOMBANG ALPHA
Aktivitas otak berupa gelombang listrik, yang
dapat direkam melalui kulit kepala disebut
Elektro-Ensefalografi (EEG)
Amplitudo
dan
frekuensi
EEG
bervariasi,
tergantung pada tempat perekaman dan aktivitas
otak saat perekaman
Saat subyek santai, mata tertutup, gambaran EEG
nya menunjukkan aktivitas sedang dengan
gelombang sinkron 8-14 siklus/detik, disebut
gelombang alfa
Gelombang alfa dapat direkam dengan baik pada
area visual di daerah oksipital
GELOMBANG BETA
Gelombang alfa yang sinkron dan teratur akan
hilang, kalau subyek membuka matanya yang
tertutup
Gelombang yang terjadi adalah gelombang beta
(> 14 siklus/detik)
Gelombang beta direkam dengan baik di regio
frontal,
Merupakan tanda bahwa orang terjaga, waspada
dan terjadi aktivitas mental
Meski gelombang EEG berasal dari kortek,
modulasinya dipengaruhi oleh formasio retikularis di
subkortek
Cerebral Cortex
GELOMBANG TETA
Irama yang lebih lambat dari irama alfa adalah tidak
jarang pula ditemukan pada orang dewasa normal.
Irama teta mempunyai frekuensi antara 4-7 spd.
GELOMBANG DELTA
Suatu irama yang lebih pelan dari teta disebut
irama delta
Adalah selalu abnormal bila didapatkan pada
rekaman bangun, tetapi merupakan komponen
yang normal pada rekaman tidur
Frekuensi irama delta ialah - 3 spd
FORMATIO RETICULARIS
Formasio retikularis terletak di substansi abu otak
dari daerah medulla sampai midbrain dan talamus
Neuron formasio retikularis menunjukkan hubungan
yang menyebar
Perangsangan formasio retikularis midbrain
membangkitkan gelombang beta, individu seperti
dalam keadaan bangun dan terjaga
Lesi pada formasio retikularis midbrain
mengakibatkan orang dalam stadium koma, dengan
gambaran EEG gelombang delta
Jadi formasio retikularis midbrain merangsang ARAS
(Ascending Reticular Activating System), suatu
proyeksi serabut difus yang menuju bagian area di
forebrain
FORMATIO RETICULARIS
excitatory area located in the rtance of the upper mid-pons and mesencephalon
Inhibitory reticuler in the reticular substance of the lower mid-pons and medulla
RAS
Inhibitory reticuler area
Raphe nuclei
In the lower half of the pons and in the medulla
Nerve fibers from these nuclei spread locally in
the brain stem reticular formation, upward into
the thalamus, hypothalamus, most areas of the
limbic system, and cortex and downward into
the spinal cord, terminating in the posterior
horns where they can inhibit incoming sensory
signals
Use serotonin as a neurotransmittor
RAS
Excitatory area
It receive sensory signals from periphery,
face, cortex (exitatory control)
It is under control of the inhibitory effect
of the inhibitory reticular area
Functions: Wakefulness, maintain tone in
the antigravity muscles, control levels of
activity of the spinal cord reflexes
Use acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter
TALAMUS
Nuklei reticular thalamus juga masuk dalam ARAS,
yang juga mengirimkan serabut difus kesemua area
di kortek serebri
ARAS mempunyai proyeksi non spesifik dengan
depolarisasi global di kortek, sebagai kebalikan dari
proyeksi sensasi spesifik dari thalamus yang
mempunyai efek eksitasi kortek secara khusus
untuk tempat tertentu
Eksitasi ARAS umum memfasilitasi respon kortikal
spesifik ke sinyal sensori spesifik dari thalamus
Dalam keadaan normal, sewaktu perjalanan ke
kortek, sinyal sensorik dari serabut sensori aferen
menstimulasi ARAS melalui cabang-cabang
kolateral akson
Jika sistem aferen terangsang seluruhnya (suara
keras, mandi air dingin), proyeksi ARAS memicu
Fisiologi/Patofisiologi EEG
Aktivitas listrik merupakan salah satu karakteristik
dari semua sel hidup,termasuk sel-sel saraf.
Walaupun demikian, tidak keseluruhan sel saraf
yang berjumlah 2,6 x 109 itu dianggap
menyebabkan gelombang-gelombang listrik di
permukaan sebagaimana terekam dengan EEG.
Jadi yang dapat mengakibatkan gelombanggelombang EEG adalah sel-sel saraf di korteks,
walaupun diketahui juga bahwa struktur-struktur
subkortikal, seperti talamus dan formatio
retikularis mempunyai pengaruh yang kuat
terhadap gelombang-gelombang kortikal itu.
TERIMA
KASIH