Norms of

Morality
Prof. Fernandino J. Pancho

Definition
Norms

of morality

is the criteria of judgment about the sorts of

person we ought to be and the sorts of action we
ought to perform.
the quality of things manifesting their
conformity or non-coformity with the norm or
criteria. (that which conforms is good or moral, that which
do not conform is evil or immoral)

The subjective norm of morality Conscience

The objective norm of morality Law (natural)
Both natural law and conscience are rooted on
Eternal Law, the ultimate norm, thus, there is only
one norm.

Conscience
The

subjective/proximate norm of morality.

It is proximate because it is what directly confronts an

action as good or bad.

Function:

to examine/investigate, to
judge, to pass punishment on our moral
actions.
It approves & commends; reproaches &
condemns; forbids & commands; accuses &
absolves.

Synderesis

it is the quality by which

man naturally perceives the truth of the
self-evident principles of the moral order.

Conscience - definition
Derived

from the Latin words con plus

scientia which means with knowledge
of what is right or wrong or trial of oneslf
both in accusation and in defense.

It

is the inner or little voice of God in

man crying out mans moral obligations and
telling him what to do and what to avoid in the
moral order.

It

is an act of the practical judgment of reason

deciding upon an individual action as good and
to be performed or as evil and to be avoided.

Conscience - Kinds
Antecedent

judgment is passed before

an action is performed.
Consequent judgment is passed after
an action is performed.
Right/True judges what is really good
as good and waht is really evil as evil
according to the true principles of
morality.
Erroneous/False judges what is really
bad as good and vice versa according to
a false interpretation of the moral
principles.

Conscience - Kinds
Certain

conscience a subjective
assurance of
the lawfulness or
unlawfulness of certain actions to be
done or to be
omitted.

Doubtful

conscience a vacillating
conscience, which is unable to form a
definite
judgment on a certain
action.
A doubtful conscience must first be allowed
to settle its doubts before an action is
performed.

Conscience - Kinds
Lax

conscience is one which refuses to be

bothered about the disticntion of
good and
evil.
It tends to follow the easy way and to find excuses for omissions
and mistakes.
These are people who act on the impulse of bahala na on
matters of morals.

Scrupulous

conscience is a rigorous
conscience, extremely afraid of
commiting
evil.
A scrupulous conscience is meticoulous and wants
incontrovertible proofs before it acts . It is frequently the result
of a stuborn character.
For some, it merely means a serious concern about moral
perfection.

Formation of Conscience
One has the obligation to cultivate a
true and certain conscience.
1. By

studying and searching for truths in

the laws and in the sciences. Overcoming
ignorance and error in moral matters.
2. Cultivating good habits. Overcoming
doubts.
3. By militating against evil,condemning
and fighting against it.
4. One must learn how to use properly
his/her freedom.

Causes of Erroneous
Conscience

A mistake along the process of

practical reasoning especially with
regard to remote conclusions of the
moral principles.
2. Ignorance of law
3. Ignorance of the fact and other
circumstances modifying human action
4. Ignorance invoving future
consequences, especially those
dependent on the free will of others.
1.

Law - definition
It

is an ordinance of reason directed

towards the common good and
promulgated by the one who has the
care of the community or in authority.
Elements:
1. Ordinance/mandate because it
contains a decisive command to perform or
to avoid the performance of something.
2. Reasonable a law should not be dictated
by a despotic desire or momentary whim of
an authority. It must not be capricious,
arbitrary, discriminatory and whimsical.

Elements:

3. For the common good means that that law

should benefit all citizens and not the exclusive

benefit of some favored groups.
- it is the sum total of benefits derived by individuals
from the government and from the nation as a
whole.
- it is the universal happiness all men seek (St.
Thomas).

4. Promulgated means the law must be officially

published for the porpuse of informing the people.
(published in official gazzette or newspaper of
general circulation)

5. Enacted by a competent authority a

person who is elected or appointed to make laws.

(Congress)

Law - Kinds
1. Eternal Law
it is the Divine reason or the will of
God commanding that the natural
order of things be preserved and
forbidding that it be disturbed (St.
Augustine)
- it is the exemplar of Divine wisdom as
directing all actions and movements. (St.
Thomas)
Properties/Features: Unchangeable & Universal

Law - Kinds
2. Natural law
- it is mans participation in the eternal law of God.
- it is an extension of the divine order of things
as
apprehended by human reason.
- are not written decrees; figuratively speaking,
they
are
written in the hearts of men.
They are impressed in
human nature by the author of
nature.
- it refers to the nature of all created things which is the
principle of movements and action: chemical,
biological, psychological, or rational.
- it is recognized by all men regardless of creed, race,
culture,
historical circumstances.
- All agreed that there is an inner force that compels man
towards good
and away from evil.
Properties/Features: Universal, Obligatory, Recognizable by
reason, Immutable

Law - Kinds
3. Human Positive Law
- are the laws which proceed from a
properly constituted authority such as
the state or the church.
-this serve to supplement the provisions of the
natural law in view of the special needs of
the community.

-Laws of the State contained in the

Constitution and code of Civil Law.

-Laws of the Church compiled in the

Canon

Law.

Human Positive Law Properties

1. A human law should be in accord with the divine
2.
3.
4.

law.
A human law should be in accord with the
natural law.
A human law must promote the common good.
A human law must have a universal character.

Every human law has just so much of the nature of

the law as it is derived from the law of nature.
But if, at any point, it departs from the law of
nature, it is no longer a law but a perversion of
law (St. Thomas). Thus, an unjust law, have no
moral binding force, and should not be obeyed.

Defective Norms of
Morality
Hedonism

Utilitarianism
Moral

Rationalism
Moral Positivism
Moral Evolutionism
Moral Sensism
Communism

Hedonism
It

is an ethical theory which holds that

the supreme end of man consists in
the acquisition of pleasure.
Sensible pleasures are the highest good of life.

Morality

is grounded on the pleasure

or satisfaction that an act brings or
entails.
The good action is the pleasant action.
The bad action is that which produces pain or
unhappiness.

Utilitarianism
Is

a theory very mush akin to Hedonism.

This norm of morality holds that actions are
right in proportion as they tend to promote
happiness, wrong as they tend to produce
unhappiness.
It makes utility the norm of morality.
The goodness or badness of an action would
depend on the effects or consequences of the
action.
An act is good if and when it gives good results,
if it works, it makes you successful, if it makes
you attain your purpose, bad if it does not.

Types of Utilitarianism
Individual/egoistic

utilitarianism
holds that the norm of morality resides in
the usefulness of an action for the
production of the temporal happiness of
the individual.
An act is good when it redounds to the
temporal welfare and happiness of the
individual, and bad if it hinders or hampers this
happiness.

Social/altruistic

utilitarianism holds
that an act is good when it is conducive to
the social good or well-being

Commentary (Hedonism &

Utilitarianism)
Merits

It explains very well the emotional

basis and aspects of human action.
It explains well the reason behind
the doing of action by most people
There is always some satisfaction
accompanying the doing of every good act.
There is no doubt that most people are
motivated in their action by their desire for
satisfaction or happiness or well-being.

Commentary (Hedonism &

Utilitarianism)
Defects

Both propose an earthly goal for man, that

is, the temporal welfare here on earth.
The ultimate and supreme purpose of man cannot
be found in this life.

Both make or tend to make morality

relative
What is pleasant or useful to one may be painful
and harmful to another. Relative morality leads to
moral chaos and destruction.

Commentary (Hedonism &

Utilitarianism)
Defects

Both theories make morality extrinsic because

they make it depend on the effect or on a
concomitant factor of an act.
Morality is intrinsic, that is, based on the very essence
of things and on the nature of the act itself.
Satisfaction/pleasure

may indicate and

accompany the doing of a good act; but the act
is good not because it brings satisfaction, but
rather, it brings satisfaction because it is good.
The pleasure follows from the goodness and not the
goodness from the satisfaction
The satisfaction/pleasure is merely an effect, and an
indication but not the cause or the reason of the
goodness of an action.

Moral Rationalism
Immanuel
Kant
Is the theory which
maintains that all knowledge
and all truths are derived from human reason.
Human reason, therefore, is the source of all truths, all
laws, and all principles.
Human reason is the source of all moral laws and all
moral obligations.
Reason commands, and the commands of reason are
absolute and unconditional, absolutely binding on all
men of all times (Categorical Imperative).
Therefore, good must be done simply because we want.
Virtue must be practiced for virtues sake; goodness, for
goodness sake.

Why

we must do good?

We must do good because we must, it is our duty to

obey unconditionally without questioning (Principle of
Deontology).

Moral Rationalism
The

command of reason is categorical and all

are obliged to obey, it is our moral duty to
obey unconditionally.
Duty is the very root, test and the mainspring
of all morally good acts.
All that is moral is motivated by pure sense of duty, by
pure reverence for the law.
Thus, morality is grounded on duty or moral obligation.

True

morality, must be autonomous in

character (Autonomy of Reason).
According to which theory: it is reason that commands
and at the same time it is reason that obeys.
Thus, reason will be the law-maker, the law-giver and lawobeyer at the same time.

Commentary (Moral
Rationalism)

Merits

It emphasized the absolute and immutable

nature of morality
It saves morality from the destructiveness and
insanity of moral relativity and skepticism.
Defects

On Autonomy of Reason
Reason is the absolute law-maker, law-giver, lawabider. (Autonomy of Reason)
Morality comes not from reason itself but from a
higher and other source than human reason.
(Heteronomy of Reason)

Commentary (Moral
Rationalism)
Defects

Based on Heteronomy of Reason

Human reason only sees things, but it does not make
things.
Human reason tells us the law, but it does not make the
law.
Moral law is not from human reason, it is not our own
making, but it is impose on us from a higher source.
If the law were made by human reason, then
everything that we would like to do could be approved
by reason, but the fact is that we have many things we
like to do by which we know are against the dictates of
our conscience.
Nothing can be superior and inferior at the same time.

Commentary (Moral
Rationalism)
Defects

Duty as a norm of morality

Duty cannot be sole motive in the
performance of an act.
There are other motives that are more worthy
and more noble, such as love, pity, mercy, etc.

On Universalization of Reason
There are many acts which cannot be
universalized.
Ex. Dying a heros death by martyrdom

Moral Evolutionism
This

is the theory of all those who

holds that morality is never fixed or
absolute, but is continually changing
and evolving gradually into a perfect
morality.

Friedrich

Nietzsche - believed that

morality the distinction between
right and wrong did not exist in the
beginning or originally unknown.
Good is that which anybody desired.

Moral Evolutionism
Friedrich

Nietzsche

He was convinced that traditional values represented a

slave morality, a morality created by weak and
resentful individuals who encouraged such behavior as
gentleness and kindness because the behavior served
their interests.
These are the laws/values derived and based on the teachings of
Christianity which stands for meekness, humility, suffering pity,
mercy, poverty, forgiveness and love.
These values glorify and favor the weak and produces weaklings

But, according to Nietzsche, we must produce the strong

The law of nature is the survival of the fittest.
The strong is destined by nature to live and rule.
The weak has no right from nature to live. The weak who form the
majority must be eliminated in order to give way to the aristocracy of
the strong.

Moral Evolutionism
Thus,

Nietzsche, developed an idea of

the Superman/Overman.
The Superman/Overman was an individual who
overcame the slave morality of traditional values,
and lived according to his own values/morality.
This superman is secure, independent, and highly
individualistic. The overman feels deeply, but his
passions are rationally controlled. Concentrating
on the real world, rather than on the rewards of
the next world promised by religion, the overman
affirms life, including the suffering and pain that
accompany human existence.

Moral Evolutionism
He

advanced this idea by saying that God

is dead, or the traditional morality was no
longer relevant in peoples lives.

For

him, the end of all morality and society

to produce the strong, the superman.

Thus,

might, strength and power form the

basis of true morality.
Good, is that one which makes one strong,
powerful, and most of all super human, and bad is
that which is productive of the weak.

Commentary (Moral
Evolutionism)
The

result the chaotic, horrific,

barbaric and devastating World War II
(German Invasion).
Who thinks that they are the Aryan race
(White supremacy) superior to any other and
destined to rule and conquer the world.
They devoured weaker nations and justified
all the massacres, tortures, and bloodshed of
concentration camps in their occupied
countires on the theory that thay are the
strong and, therefore, can do no wrong.

Moral Positivism

This theory holds that the basis/source of all moral laws

is the laws of the State.
Good is that which is in accordance with the laws of
the State; bad is that which is forbidden by the
State.

The proponent of this theory is Thomas Hobbes

Nature was in a state of universal war. Mankind was in
a state of war before the formation of the State.
Man is a wolf unto his fellowmen (Homo homini lupus)
Thus, there was no law, no morality, no distinction
between right and wrong.
To end this state of war and anarchy, men came
together to form the State.
Thus, laws, rights and duties were then established.
Morality then has it source, its origin from the laws of the State.

Commentary (Moral
Defects
Positivism)
It makes morality relative.
There are State Laws which are legal but not
moral (Abortion, Death Penalty, Same Sex
Marriage).

It reverses the natural order of things.

Before there was any State there was already
human nature with all its natural and inviolable
rights and the law (natural law) governing it.
Example:
Murder is always bad, even before there was any
State law prohibiting it. Murder is forbidden by law
and is wrong because it is clearly a violation against
human nature.

Moral Sensism
Is

an ethical theory which holds that

man is endowed with a special moral
sense (other than reason) by virtue of
which man distinguishes between right
and wrong.
The basis/source of morality is mans
senses; what a persons feel about the
human act.
Good if I feel it is good; bad if I feel it is bad.
This view expressed when we say he has
no sense of morality, no moral taste.

Commentary (Moral
Sensism)
Defects

It makes morality relative.

Morality is not based on feelings/senses.
Morality is not based on the mood of the
person.
A human act is good or bad based on the norms
of morality which is conscience and natural law.

Communism
Its

moral philosophy is the logical

consequence of metaphysics or view of
reality known as dialectic materialism.
According to this theory, matter is the only
reality.
This sole entity or matter, is in constant flux or
motion and this accounts for all the events,
motion and change in the universe; so that all
phenomena of nature, all history, are nothing
else but the manifestation of this dialectic
process inherent in the nature of all things
(matter).

Communism
It

is founded on the theory of

change, evolution and revolution.
Everything is progressing towards the goal
of perfection; man, society and history
naturally and necessarily tend towards the
attainment of the ultimate objective: the
perfect state here on earth, the
Classless Society.
All these are involved in the inexorable
laws of dialectic materialism.
The goal of man is his earthly happiness in
a classless society.

Communism
Morality

is changing since all things

changes.
Good is that which brings about and hasten to
bring about the realization of a classless society;
bad that which hinders or delays its coming.
The end of man, which is the classless society, is
the norm of morality.
The end determines the morality of an act, the
means does not matter. Thus, the end
justifies the means.
Revolution, conflict, bloodshed, wars, espionage, etc., are
good if they bring about the desired end: Classless
Society

Communism
Primacy of Economics
Economics

is the sole basis of all

civilization, all progress, all history, all
society.
It conditions and determines ones religion
and even ones mode of thinking and living.
Morality is likewise determined by
economics, in such a way that different
economic conditions give rise to different
moralities.

Economics

is the beginning and the

ends of all ethics/morality.

Commentary Communism
Merit

Communism explains well the

importance and necessity of
economics in life.
Man is an economic being.
He has an stomach to feed, he has to earn a
living to support himself and his family, etc.

Defects

It is vitiated with the fallacy of

exclusiveness and
misproportion.

Commentary Communism
While it is true that man can not live with
bread, it is likewise true that he does nor live
by bread alone.
While he is an economic being, he is not an
economic being exclusively, nor principally.
While we cannot disregard economics in life,
we cannot make it the sole and the most
important thing in life.
It may be the basis or a sine qua non condition
of earthly life, but it is not the end of all
human beings, though it is a necessary means
to it.

Commentary Communism
Comparison between Morality of communism and
Christian Morality:
1. Communism is based on the primacy of matter.
Christian morality is based on the primacy of the
spirit.
2. Communism proposes an earthly goal for man
(temporal life).
Christian morality is primarily for the other world
(eternal life).
3. Communism denies the basic postulates of Christian
morality (the existence of God, freedom of the will,
immortality of the soul. It substitute matter for God;
life in a classless society for immortality, and the laws
of the dialectic for freedom.

Commentary - Communism
Comparison between Morality of communism and
Christian Morality:
4. Communism adheres to the position that the end
justifies the means.
Christian morality believe that the end does not
justify
the means.
5. Communism subscribes to the evolutionistic view of
morality.
Christian morality maintains that morality is
absolute, immutable and eternal.
6. Communism uses force, conflict, revolution for the
attainment of its goal: the classless society here on
earth.
Christian morality teaches love, patience, right living
and
prayer for the attainment of its ultimate
end: eternal
happiness in heaven, with God.

Thank you! God

bless!