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chapter 18
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
Chapter 18
The ideal op-amp
The ideal op-amp is one with optimum characteristics,
which cannot be attained in the real world. Nevertheless,
actual op-amp circuits can often approach this ideal.
The ideal op amp has infinite voltage gain, infinite input resistance
(open), and zero output resistance.
Vin
Rin=
AvVin
Rout= 0
Vout
Chapter 18
The practical op-amp
Practical op-amps have limitations including power and
voltage limits. A practical op-amp has high voltage gain,
high input resistance, and low output resistance.
There are two inputs, labeled inverting and non inverting because of
the phase relation of the input and output signals.
inverting input
Rin
Vin
non inverting
input
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
AvVin
Rout
Vout
Chapter 18
The differential amplifier
Most op-amps have a differential amplifier (diff-amp) as
the input stage. The differential amplifier has important
advantages over other amplifiers; for example it can reject
+VCC
common-mode noise.
The signal at the collector
The signal at the collector of
Q1 is inverted.
RC1
Q1
The input is in
single-ended mode.
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
RC2
of Q2 is not inverted.
Q2
RE
VEE
Chapter 18
Differential and common-mode signals
Signals can be applied to either or both inputs. If two input
signals are out of phase, they are in differential-mode. If the
signals are in phase, they are in common-mode.
When the inputs are
out of phase, the
outputs are amplified
and larger than with
one input.
When
the inputs are in
phase, the outputs tend
to cancel and are near
zero.
Inputs
Inputsout
in phase
of phase
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
+VCC
RC1
Q1
RC2
Q2
RE
VEE
2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 18
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
Many times, noise sources will induce an unwanted voltage
in a signal line. When the noise is induced in commonmode, the differential amplifier tends to cancel it. (The diffamp cannot reject any signal that is in differential mode.)
The ability to reject common-mode signals is measured with a
parameter called the common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR), which
is defined as
Av ( d )
CMRR
Acm
Av ( d )
A
cm
Chapter 18
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
A certain diff-amp has a differential voltage
gain of 500 and a common-mode gain of
0.1. What is the CMRR?
From the defining equation for CMRR:
Av ( d ) 500
CMRR
5000
Acm
0.1
Expressed in decibels, it is
Av ( d )
CMRR 20 log
20 log 5000 74 dB
Acm
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
Chapter 18
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
A certain diff-amp has Ad = 100 and a CMRR
of 90 dB. Describe the output if the input is a
50 mV differential signal and a common mode
noise of 1.0 V is present.
The differential signal is amplified by 100. Therefore,
the signal output is
Vout = Av(d) x Vin = 100 x 50 mV = 5.0 V
The common-mode gain can be found by
A
100
100
100
Acm v ( d )
4.5
0.0032
CMRR 90 dB 10
31, 600
The noise is amplified by 0.0032. Therefore,
Vnoise = Acm x Vin = 0.0032 x 1.0 V = 3.2 mV
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
Chapter 18
Op-amp parameters
Some important op-amp parameters are:
Input bias Average of input currents required to bias
current: the first stage of the amplifier:
I BIAS
I1 I 2
2
Chapter 18
Op-amp parameters
Output The resistance when viewed from the output
resistance: terminal.
Common-mode Range of input voltages, which, when applied
input voltage to both inputs, will not cause clipping or other
range: distortion.
Common-mode Ratio of the differential gain to the commonrejection ratio mode gain. The differential gain for the op-amp
by itself is the same as its open loop gain.
CMRR
Av ( d )
Acm
Aol
Acm
Chapter 18
Op-amp parameters
Vout (V)
12
10
0
10
12
25 s
Vout 20 V
0.8 V/s
t
25 s
Chapter 18
Negative feedback
In 1921, Harold S. Black was working on the problem of
linearizing and stabilizing amplifiers. While traveling to work on
the ferry, he suddenly realized that if he returned some of the
output back to the input in opposite phase, he had a means of
canceling distortion. One of the most important ideas in
electronics was sketched out on his newspaper that morning.
The op-amp has a differential
amplifier as the input stage. When a
feedback network returns a fraction
of the output to the inverting input,
only the difference signal (Vin Vf)
is amplified.
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
Vin
Vf
Vout
Feedback
network
Chapter 18
Op amp circuits with negative feedback
Negative feedback is used in almost all linear op-amp
circuits because it stabilizes the gain and reduces
distortion. It can also increase the input resistance.
A basic configuration is a noninverting amplifier. The difference
between Vin and Vf is very small due to feedback. Therefore, Vin V f .
+
Vin
Vf
Vout
Rf
Ri
Feedback
network
Ri
Chapter 18
Op amp circuits with negative feedback
The inverting amplifier is a basic configuration in which the
noninverting input is grounded (sometimes through a resistor to
balance the bias inputs). Again, the difference between Vin and Vf is
very small due to feedback; this implies that the inverting input is
nearly at ground. This is referred to as a virtual ground. The virtual
ground looks like ground to voltage, but not to current!
Rf
Virtual ground
Ri
Vin
Vout
Ri
Chapter 18
Input resistance for the noninverting amplifier
The input resistance of an op-amp without feedback is
Rin. For the 741C, the manufacturers specified value of
Rin is 2 M. Negative feedback increases this to
Rin(NI) = (1 + AolB)Rin. This is so large that for all
practical circuits it can be considered to be infinite.
Vin
Vout
Rf
Ri
Chapter 18
Output resistance for the noninverting amplifier
The output resistance of an op-amp without feedback
is Rout. Negative feedback decreases this by a factor of
(1 + AolB). This is so small that for all practical
circuits it can be considered to be zero.
Vin
Vout
Rf
Ri
Rout
Rout (NI)
1 Aol B
The low output resistance
implies that the output voltage
is independent of the load
resistance (as long as the
current limit is not exceeded).
Chapter 18
What are the input and output resistances and the gain of
the noninverting amplifier? Assume the op amp has
Aol = 100,000, Rin = 2 M, and Rout = 75
The gain is
Rf
Vin
36 k
Acl (I) 1
1
25
Ri
1.5 k
1
The feedback fraction is B
0.040
25
Vout
Rf
36 k
Ri
1.5 k
Chapter 18
(continued)
Vin
Vout
Rf
36 k
Ri
1.5 k
= 0.019
1 Aol B 1+ 100,000 0.040
This extremely small resistance is close to ideal. As in the
case of the input resistance, it is rarely necessary to calculate
an exact value for the noninverting amplifier.
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
Chapter 18
Input resistance for the inverting amplifier
Recall that negative feedback forces the inverting input
to be near ac ground for the inverting amplifier. For this
reason, the input resistance of the inverting amplifier is
equal to just the input resistor, Ri. That is, Rin(I) = Ri.
Rf
Vin
Ri
Vout
Chapter 18
Output resistance for the inverting amplifier
The equation for the output resistance of the inverting
amplifier is the essentially the same as the
noninverting amplifier:
Rout
Rout (I)
Rf
Vin
Ri
Vout
1 Aol B
Chapter 18
Rf
Vin
1.5 k
Rf
Ri
36 k
24
1.5 k
36 k
Vout
Chapter 18
Voltage-follower
The voltage-follower is a special case of the noninverting
amplifier in which Acl = 1. The input resistance is
increased by negative feedback and the output resistance
is decreased by negative feedback. This makes it an ideal
circuit for interfacing a high-resistance source with a low
resistance load.
Vin
Vout
Chapter 18
Chapter 18
Chapter 18
Quiz
Chapter 18
Quiz
RC1
Q1
RC2
Q2
RE
VEE
Chapter 18
Quiz
Chapter 18
Quiz
Chapter 18
Quiz
Vout (V)
12
10
0
10
12
10 s
Chapter 18
Quiz
Vin
b. Vout
c. ground.
Vf
Vout
Rf
Ri
Feedback
network
Chapter 18
Quiz
a. zero
b. 10 k
c. 2 M
Vin
Ri
10 k
150 k
Vout
d. 8 G
Chapter 18
Quiz
a. zero
b. 10 k
c. 150 k
Vin
Ri
10 k
150 k
Vout
d. 8 G
Chapter 18
Quiz
Rf
b. 10
c. 15
d. 16
Vin
Ri
10 k
150 k
Vout
Chapter 18
Quiz