The Difference Between

Assessment and
Evaluation

?What Is Teaching
:Brainstorm
Think of different ways to define
.teaching
Write down at least three different
.definitions of teaching
Pair up with someone to choose the best
.ONE of your six-plus definitions
Share your definitions with the group,
.one at a time in sequence

Definitions of Teaching
.To present information, insights
. To reveal knowledge or skill
.To help students learn
NOTE: All of the above can be
accomplished either deliberately or
.incidentally
That is, you can teach by means of
explicit instruction, ongoing guidance,
deliberate modeling, or accidental
.example

Ways to Improve Teaching

and Learning
Implement research-based best
.practices
Employ an assessment-informed
model of teaching focused on
measurable student learning
.outcomes

Ways to Improve Teaching

and Learning
Implement research-based best
.practices
Think of at least one way to implement
.each item of practice
.Write down each example
Pair up with the person next to you to
.choose the best example of each
.Share your findings with the group

Ways to Improve Teaching

and Learning
Implement research-based best
.practices
Employ an assessment-informed
model of teaching focused on
measurable student learning
.outcomes
But first we need to distinguish
.assessment from evaluation

Test: A method to determine a student's ability to complete certain

tasks or demonstrate mastery of a skill or knowledge of content.
Some types would be multiple choice tests, or a weekly spelling
test. While it is commonly used interchangeably with assessment,
or even evaluation, it can be distinguished by the fact that a test is
one form of an assessment.
Assessment: The process of gathering information to monitor
progress and make educational decisions if necessary. As noted in
my definition of test, an assessment may include a test, but also
includes methods such as observations, interviews, behavior
monitoring, etc.
Evaluation: Procedures used to determine whether the subject (i.e.
student) meets a preset criteria, such as qualifying for special
education services. This uses assessment (remember that an
assessment may be a test) to make a determination of qualification
in accordance with a predetermined criteria.
Measurement, beyond its general definition, refers to the set of
procedures and the principles for how to use the procedures in
educational tests and assessments. Some of the basic principles of
measurement in educational evaluations would be raw scores,

Dimensions of Difference Between

Assessment and Evaluation
Timing
Focus of Measurement
Relationship Between Administrator &
Recipient
Findings, Uses Thereof
Ongoing Modifiability of Criteria, Measures
Thereof
Standards of Measurement
Relation Between Different Objects of A/E

Assessment Evaluation

(various sources, but especially Dan Apple 1998)

Formative:
Timing
Ongoing to Improve
Learning

Assessment Evaluation

(various sources, but especially Dan Apple 1998)

Formative:
Summative: Final
Ongoing to Improve to Gauge Quality
Learning
Focus of
Measurement

Assessment Evaluation

(various sources, but especially Dan Apple 1998)

Formative:
Summative: Final
Ongoing to Improve to Gauge Quality
Learning
Process-Oriented: Focus of
How Learning Is
Measurement
Going

Assessment Evaluation

(various sources, but especially Dan Apple 1998)

Formative:
Summative: Final
Ongoing to Improve to Gauge Quality
Learning
Process-Oriented: Product-Oriented:
How Learning Is
Whats Been
Going
Learned
Administrator/Recipi
ent Relationship

Assessment Evaluation

(various sources, but especially Dan Apple 1998)

Formative:
Summative: Final
Ongoing to Improve to Gauge Quality
Learning
Process-Oriented: Product-Oriented:
How Learning Is
Whats Been
Going
Learned
Reflective:
Internally Defined
Criteria/Goals

Administrator/Recipi
ent Relationship

Assessment Evaluation

(various sources, but especially Dan Apple 1998)

Formative:
Summative: Final
Ongoing to Improve to Gauge Quality
Learning
Process-Oriented: Product-Oriented:
How Learning Is
Whats Been
Going
Learned
Reflective:
Internally Defined
Criteria/Goals
Findings, Uses

Prescriptive:Extern
al-ly Imposed
Standards

Assessment Evaluation

(various sources, but especially Dan Apple 1998)

Formative:
Summative: Final
Ongoing to Improve to Gauge Quality
Learning
Process-Oriented: Product-Oriented:
How Learning Is
Whats Been
Going
Learned
Reflective:
Internally Defined
Criteria/Goals

Prescriptive:Extern
al-ly Imposed
Standards

Diagnostic: Identify Findings, Uses

Assessment Evaluation

(various sources, but especially Dan Apple 1998)

Formative:
Summative: Final
Ongoing to Improve to Gauge Quality
Learning
Process-Oriented: Product-Oriented:
How Learning Is
Whats Been
Going
Learned
Reflective:
Internally Defined
Criteria/Goals

Prescriptive:Extern
al-ly Imposed
Standards

Diagnostic: Identify Judgmental: Arrive

Assessment Evaluation

(various sources, but especially Dan Apple 1998)

Formative:
Summative: Final
Ongoing to Improve to Gauge Quality
Learning
Process-Oriented: Product-Oriented:
How Learning Is
Whats Been
Going
Learned
Reflective:
Internally Defined
Criteria/Goals

Prescriptive:Extern
al-ly Imposed
Standards

Diagnostic: Identify Judgmental: Arrive

Assessment Evaluation

(various sources, but especially Dan Apple 1998)

Process-Oriented: Product-Oriented:
How Learning Is
Whats Been
Going
Learned
Reflective:
Internally Defined
Criteria/Goals

Prescriptive:Extern
al-ly Imposed
Standards

Diagnostic: Identify Judgmental: Arrive

Areas for
at an Overall
Improvement
Grade/Score
Flexible: Adjust As

Fixed: To Reward

Assessment Evaluation

(various sources, but especially Dan Apple 1998)

Process-Oriented: Product-Oriented:
How Learning Is
Whats Been
Going
Learned
Reflective:
Internally Defined
Criteria/Goals

Prescriptive:Extern
al-ly Imposed
Standards

Diagnostic: Identify Judgmental: Arrive

Areas for
at an Overall
Improvement
Grade/Score
Flexible: Adjust As

Fixed: To Reward

Assessment Evaluation

(various sources, but especially Dan Apple 1998)

Reflective:
Internally Defined
Criteria/Goals

Prescriptive:Extern
al-ly Imposed
Standards

Diagnostic: Identify Judgmental: Arrive

Areas for
at an Overall
Improvement
Grade/Score
Flexible: Adjust As
Problems Are
Clarified

Fixed: To Reward
Success, Punish
Failure

Absolute: Strive for Comparative:

Assessment Evaluation

(various sources, but especially Dan Apple 1998)

Reflective:
Internally Defined
Criteria/Goals

Prescriptive:Extern
al-ly Imposed
Standards

Diagnostic: Identify Judgmental: Arrive

Areas for
at an Overall
Improvement
Grade/Score
Flexible: Adjust As
Problems Are
Clarified

Fixed: To Reward
Success, Punish
Failure

Absolute: Strive for Comparative:

Assessment Evaluation

(various sources, but especially Dan Apple 1998)

Reflective:
Internally Defined
Criteria/Goals

Prescriptive:Extern
al-ly Imposed
Standards

Diagnostic: Identify Judgmental: Arrive

Areas for
at an Overall
Improvement
Grade/Score
Flexible: Adjust As
Problems Are
Clarified

Fixed: To Reward
Success, Punish
Failure

Absolute: Strive for Comparative:

Summary of Differences
Dimension of Difference

Assessment

Evaluation

Timing

Formative

Summative

Focus of Measurement

Process-Oriented

ProductOriented

Relationship Between
Administrator and Recipient

Reflective

Prescriptive

Findings, Uses Thereof

Diagnostic

Judgmental

Ongoing Modifiability of
Criteria, Measures Thereof

Flexible

Fixed

Standards of Measurement

Absolute

Comparative

Relation Between Objects of

A/E

Coperative

Competitive

Assessment vs. Evaluation

If we had time, Id have you Think, Write,
Pair, Share to come up with examples of
:assessment and evaluation to show that
The multidimensionality of the
difference between them, and the
variation in each dimension, result in a
very diverse array of examples, the
majority of which are neither
assessment nor evaluation but
.rather hybrids

Ways to Improve Teaching

and Learning
Implement research-based best
.practices
.Put the examples into practice

Employ an assessment-informed
model of teaching focused on
measurable student learning
.outcomes
?How to do this

Employ an assessmentinformed model of teaching

Define learning outcomes (desired by
.teachers and/or learners) well in advance
Assess progress toward outcomes, by and
for both teacher and learner, continually
.during learning
Evaluate attainment of outcomes
rigorously as each learning opportunity
.concludes
Moment-by-moment, meeting-by-meeting,
.course-by-course, semester-by-semester

Measures of Learning
If we had time, Id also have you examine
examples of ways to measure learning
:with the aim of showing
that any measurement of learning can
be used either for assessment or for
,evaluation purposes
but that some measures are better for
.one than for the other

Ways to Improve Teaching

and Learning
Implement research-based best
.practices
Employ an assessment-informed model
of teaching focused on measurable
.student learning outcomes

Be vocal about what youre doing to

improve your teaching and your
students learning and listen to
others stories about what they are
.doing

Five Assessment Principles

(after Thomas Angelo & Patricia Cross 1993)

To improve their
teaching, faculty must
define learning
outcomes and
measure their
.attainment
To improve their
learning, students
must learn how to use
feedback to assess
their own progress (=
.self-assessment)

The best assessment

derives from teachers
questions about their
.own teaching
Systematic assessment
can be an intellectually
challenging source of
.faculty satisfaction
Assessment provides
an impetus for active
student involvement, a
.proven best practice

Introduction

EVALUATION

EVALUATION refers to consideration of evidence

in the light of value standard and in terms of the
particulars situations and the goals which the
group of individuals are striving to attain. For
instance, teachers and professors evaluate
students achievements simply because of their
concern whether or not they are able to reach the
purpose or goal of their teaching efforts. And in
evaluation, statistical treatment is involved to
determine the exact meaning of a value whether
it is within the standard or substandard. In other
words, if students achievements within the
standard, they passed and if substandard, they
.failed

Definition of evaluation
Evaluation

is defined as a systematic
process by which the worth or value of
something is judged.
Evaluation in education can be defined
as a continuous process based upon
criteria which cooperatively developed
(Table
7.1)
and
concerned
with
measurement of :
The performance of learners.
The effectiveness of teachers

Evaluation

. . ...... . . . .of whom?

of what?

Students
Teachers
Programmes

and courses
in relation to what?

In

relation to educational objectives.

FUNCTIONS OF
MEASUREMENT AND
Measure
students achievement
EVALUATION

Evaluate instruction
Motivate learning
Predict success
Diagnose the nature of difficulties
Evaluate teachers performance
Evaluate school facilities

Purposes of evaluation (why we evaluate?)

Incentive

to Learn (motivation)
Feedback to student
Modification of Learning Activities
Selection of students
Success or failure
Feedback to teacher
School public relations
Protection of society
(certification of
competence)

SCOPE OF EVALUATION
.Assessment of curriculum offerings
.Assessment of school programs
.Assessment of instructional materials
.Assessment of instructional facilities
.Assessment of teachers and professors
Assessment of pupils/students
Assessment of graduates
.Assessment of school managers

ASSESSMENT OF
CURRICULUM OFFERINGS
This means courses offered should
evaluated to determine if they are
still relevant, realistic, and
responsive to the changing needs
and problems of the .society

ASSESSMENT OF SCHOOL
PROGRAMS
School programs must be appraised
to determine if teachers are not over
.loaded or underloaded

ASSESSMENT OF
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
Instructional materials like books,
references, visual aids and devices
and many others should be assessed
to ascertain if they are adequate and
.updated

ASSESSMENT OF
INSTRUCTIONAL FACILITITES
Instructional facilities like computers,
projectors, audio visual equipment,
laboratory equipment, physical plant,
library holdings and many others
should be evaluated if they are
.adequate

ASSESSMENT OF TEACHERS
AND PROFESSORS
The teachers should be evaluated if they
possess the qualities of the acronym
MODERN TEACHER(Model, Obedient,
Dedicated, Efficient, Resourceful, Noble Talented, Effective, Active, Creative, Honest,
Economical and Research oriented; to
determine also if they can deliver the goods
and services to the students effectively,
efficiently and economically; and to evaluate
if they are qualified and compete to teach
.the subjects they are handling

ASSESSMENT OF
PUPILS/STUDENTS
The pupils or students should be
evaluated to determine whether they
reached the goals of the learning
.tasks

ASSESSMENT OF GRADUATES
Graduates should be evaluated to
determine if they passed the board
examination; and if they are
employed, underemployed or
. unemployed

ASSESSMENT OF SCHOOL
MANAGERS
School managers should be
evaluated to determine if they are
democratic in to the dealing with
their subordinates; facilitator
understanding to the problems of
their subordinates; to the needs of
teachers and students; honest and
.NOT CORRUPT

EVALUATION
designates
a
more
comprehensive
concept
of
measurement than is implied in
conventional tests or examinations
the emphasis in evaluation is based
upon broad personality change and the
major objectives in the educational
program. This includes not only subject
matter achievement but also values,
attitudes, interest, ideals, ways of
thinking, work habits, personal, spiritual
.and social adaptability

CHARACTERISTICS OF
EVALUATION
It measures broad range of goals or. 1

It measures broad range of goals or. 1

objectives of the modern school curricula
rather than limited subject matter
.achievement
It uses various strategies of assessment. 2
such as achievement, prognostic, aptitudes,
personality and character, tests, rating
scales, checklist, questionnaires, judgment
scales of products, interviews, controlled
observation techniques, sociometric
.techniques and many others

CHARACTERISTICS OF
EVALUATION
It includes integrating and. 3
interpreting the various lists of
values reformation of an individual in
order to make an inclusive portrait of
himself. For this purpose a
comprehensive anecdotal and
cumulative records of students are
.intact

components of evaluation
Five basic components of evaluation :
(1) audience,
(2) purpose,
(3) questions
(4) scope, and
(5) resources
To determine these components, ask the following questions:
For what audience is the evaluation being
conducted?

For what purpose is the evaluation being

conducted?
What questions will be asked in the evaluation?
What is the scope or the evaluation?
What resources are available to conduct the

Different between evaluation &Assessment

While assessment and evaluation are
highly interrelated and are often used
interchangeably as terms, they are not
synonymous.
The
process
of
assessment is to gather, summarize,
interpret, and use data to decide a
direction for action. The process of
evaluation is to gather, summarize,
interpret, and use data to determine the
extent to which an action was

Cont. Different between evaluation &Assessment

The primary differences between these two terms

are those of timing and purpose. For example, an
education program begins with an assessment
of learners' needs. From the perspective of
systems theory, assessment data might be called
the"input." While the program is being
conducted, periodic evaluation lets the educator
know whether the program and learners are
proceed as planned. After program completion
evaluation identifies whether and to what
extent the identified needs were met.

steps of student evaluation

Four steps of student evaluation
The criteria (acceptable level of performance) of the
educational objectives
Development and use of measuring instruments
Interpretation of measurement data
Formulation of judgments and taking of appropriate
action

Types of Evaluation
Five basic types of evaluation include :
1. process,
2. content,
3. outcome,
4. impact, and
5. program.
These types ranged from the simple (process
evaluation) to the complex (impact
evaluation).

Types of Evaluation

Types of Evaluation

1. Process (Formative) Evaluation

The purpose of this evaluation is to make adjustments
in an educational activity as soon as they are needed,
whether those adjustments be in personnel, materials,
facilities learning objectives, or even attitude
Adjustments may need to be made after one class or
session before the next is taught , so process evaluation
occurs more frequently during and throughout every
learning experience than any other type.
This ongoing evaluation prevent problems before
they occur or identify problems as they arise

Types of Evaluation
2. Content Evaluation
The purpose of content evaluation is to determine
whether learners have acquired the knowledge or skills
taught during the learning experience, as taking place
immediately after the learning experience to answer the
question "To what degree did learners achieve specified
objectives?"
Examples:
- Asking a patient to give a return demonstration
immediately after observing it
- Asking participants to complete a cognitive test at the
completion of a 1-day seminar.
Content evaluation as the level is in between process and
outcome evaluation levels. In other words, content
evaluation can be considered as focusing on how the
teaching-learning process affected immediate, short-term
outcomes

Types of Evaluation
3. Outcome (Summative) Evaluation
The purpose of outcome or summative evaluation is to
determine the effects or outcomes of teaching efforts. Its
intent is to sum what happened as a result of education.
Outcome evaluation occurs after teaching has been
completed or after a program has been carried out, it is
focusing on measuring long-term change that persists
after the learning experience.
Guiding
questions
in
outcome
evaluation include the following:
Was teaching appropriate?
Did the individual(s) learn?
Were behavioural objectives met?

Types of Evaluation

4. Impact Evaluation

The purpose of impact evaluation is to: Determine the relative effects of education on
the institution or the community. obtain
information that will help decide whether
conducting an educational activity is worth its
cost.
The scope of impact evaluation is broader,
more
complex, and usually more long term
than that
of process, content, or outcome
evaluation
Outcome evaluation would focus on course
objective, whereas impact
evaluation would
focus on course goal.

Types of Evaluation
5. Program Evaluation
The purpose of total program evaluation is to
determine the extent to which all activities for
an entire program over a specified period of
time meet or exceed goals originally
established.
Example Guiding question appropriate for a
total
program
evaluation
from
this
perspective might be "To what extent did
programs undertaken by faculty members of
the nursing college academic departments
during the year accomplish annual goals
established by the departments?"

Types of Evaluation
Cont . Program Evaluation
The scope of program evaluation is broad,
generally focusing on overall goals rather
than on specific objectives.
It is encompassing all aspects of educational
activity (e.g., process, content, outcome,
impact) with input from all the participants
(e.g.,
learners,
teachers,
institutional
representatives, community representatives).
The time period over which data are
collected may extend from several months to
1 or more years, depending on the time frame
established for meeting the goals to be
evaluated.

Evaluation
Methods of evaluation must
be selected Methodologies
according to educational objectives and
domains to be evaluated . Below are different evaluation methods for
each educational domains .
Cognitive Domain
Written test

Objective type ( Matching , Multiple choice , True & false , Short

answers)

Subjective type (Long answer , Simulation)

Oral test

Observational rating scale

Questionnaire
Attitude Domain

Direct observation

Rating scale

Checklist
Psychomotor Domain

Direct observation

Practical tests

In real Situation

In simulation condition

Qualities of a test
Directly related to educational objectives
Realistic & practical
Concerned with important & useful

matters
Comprehensive but brief
Precise & clear

TESTS
THESE ARE FORMS OF EXAMINATION FOR
EVALUATING THE PERFORMANCE,
CAPABILITIES, TRAITS OR . ACHIEVEMENTS
OF THE LEARNERS. THE TEACHER IN AN
EFFORT TO MEASURE AND EVENTUALLY
EVALUATE THE LEARNERS LEVEL OF THEIR
PERFORMANCE USE A VARIETY OF TESTS.
TESTS ARE SYSTEMATIC PROCEDURE FOR
MEASURING THE RESULTS OF
.INSTRUCTION

PURPOSES OF TESTS IN
EDUCATION

THE PRIMARY PURPOSES OF TESTS ARE TO

DETERMINE THE EXTENT TO WHICH THE
LEARNING
OBJECTIVES
HAVE
BEEN
ATTAINED
AND
TO
EVALUATE
THE
EFFECTIVITY
OF
INSTRUCTIONAL
OUTCOMES. THE RESULTS OF THE TEST
MAY
AFFECT
THE
OBJECTIVES
OF
INSTRUCTION. IF THE TESTS ARE NOT
VALID AND RELIABLE, THEN THE QUALITY
OF INSTRUCTION ON WHICH WE MUST
.MAKE JUDGMENT CANNOT BE ADEQUATE

According to FINDLEY, these purpose may classified

:as

INSTRUCTIONAL.
This means that the process of
constructing a test stimulates teachers to clarify and
refine meaningful course objectives; test provide a
means of feedback to the teacher; properly
constructed tests can motivate learning; and
.examinations are useful means of overlearning
ADMINISTRATIVE. This means that tests may provide a
means for quality control for the school system;
tests are useful for program evaluation and research;
tests enable better decisions on classification and
placement; tests can increase the quality of selection
decisions; and tests can be useful means of
.accreditation, mastery or certification
GUIDANCE. This means that tests can be of value in
diagnosing an individuals special aptitudes and
. abilities

.1

.2

.3

Tests According to
INDIVIDUAL TEST. It is administered on a one-to-one
Administration
.basis

, GROUP TEST. It is administered to a group of learners

.treating their holistic outcome into a single rating
.VERBAL TEST. It requires words in written or oral form
NON-VERBAL TEST. A test that makes use of pictures or
.symbols
STANDARDIZED TEST. This test is constructed by experts
.in accordance with set objectives
INFORMAL TEST. A test constructed by classroom teacher
.in terms of specific instruction objectives
OBJECTIVE TEST. A test that is not influenced by the
.personal biases of the person doing the judgment
SUBJECTIVE TEST. A test that is affected by the personal
. biases of the person doing the judgment

Kinds of TESTS
INTELLIGENCE TEST. This is a test
which measures the intelligence
quotient(IQ) of an individual as
genius, very superior, high average,
average, low average, borderline or
mentally defective. Its function is to
establish
the
ability
to
think
abstractly o to organize parts of a
.situation into a coherent whole

PERSONALITY TEST
Personality tests are those which
measure the ways in which
individuals interest with other
individuals or in terms of the roles an
individual has ascribed to himself
.and adopts in the society

APTITUDE TEST
This test is a predictive measure of a
persons likelihood of benefit from the
instruction or experience in a given field
such as arts, music, clerical work,
.mechanical tasks, or academic studies
Ex. Differential Aptitude Test Battery(DAT) is a
series of test of different fields of endeavor to
measure which field does an examinee excel; House
Tree Person Test (HTP) is an aptitude test to
determine which of the three fields an individual does
.best

Prognostic TEST
This test predicts how well a person
is likely to do in a certain school
subject or task. For example, Iowa
Placement Examination foretells
which of the subjects in the
curriculum an examinee is doing
.good

Performance Test
Performance test is a measure, often
making use of manipulative materials,
which involves no, or a minimum of,
.verbal instruction
Ex. Kohbs block Design or the Army Beta
test is used to measure whether or not an
examinee knows how to manipulate
certain instrument, apparatus, equipment
.and others based on instruction given

Diagnostic Test
This test is a measure which
identifies the weaknesses of an
individuals achievement in any field
an which serves as basis for remedial
. instruction

Achievement Test
This test is a measurement of what
has been learned by students of the
.subject matter taught in school

Preference Test
This test is a measure of vocational or
avocational interests or aesthetic
judgments by requiring the examinees
to make forced choices between
.members of paired or grouped items
Ex. Kuder Preference record is used to
measure the enthusiast of an
individuals choice of his career or
.hobby or beauty in art or nature, etc

Accomplishment Test
A measure of achievement in which
this test is usually for individuals
. subjects in the curriculum as whole
Ex. Teacher-made-test is used to
measure achievements of pupils per
.subject

Scale test
This test has series of items
.arranged in the order of difficulty
Ex. Binet Simon Scale is arranged
from easiest to most difficult test
items to have smooth sailing in
.answering the test

Speed Test
This test measure the speed and
accuracy of the examinee within
the time limits imposed. It is
also as alertness test. For
instance, the tests in encoding,
typing, assembling and
.disassembling rifle and can sealer

Teachers made test

This test is constructed by teachers
to determine how much the
pupils/students achieved the goals or
objectives of the learning tasks. This
test is not as carefully prepared as
.the standardized test

PLACEMENT TEST
This test is used to measure the type
of job an applicant should fill, or a
test used to measure the grade or
year level the pupil or student be
.enrolled after ceasing from school

STANDARDIZED TEST
This test provides exact procedures
in controlling the method of
administration and scoring with
norms and data concerning the
. reliability and validity of the test

MAJOR PARTS OF STANDARDIZED TESTS

NORM REFERENCED TESTS(NRT) attempt to. 1
evaluate
a
particular
pupils/students
performance of some other well-defined group of
learners on the same test. It is a test in which an
individuals score interpreted by comparing it with
the scores obtained by others.
Most normreferenced test produce two types of scores a
raw score and a percentile rank. The raw score is
the number of items on the test the examinee
answers correctly. The percentile rank score is a
statistical device that shows how an examinee
compares with others, specifically the portion of
examinees who had the same or lower score for
.the particular section of the test

Criterion-reference tests(CRT) measures. 2

the pupils/students performance against some

agreed upon level of performance or criterion. It is a
test that distinguishing features of which is that an
individuals score is interpreted in terms of content
meaning. That is, an examinees performance may
be reported in terms of the specific kinds of
arithmetic operations he has mastered, the estimated
size of his vocabulary, the difficulty of reading matter
he can comprehend. The focus on what the
individual can do and what he knows. The content
skills measured are much more specific than the
referenced test. This can provide information about
an examinees level of performance in relation to
some specify body of knowledge or list of agree-upon
.objectives