Advanced Transportation

Engineering
Elective-II
G. Narendra Goud
Assistant Professor, CEDMVSREC
gnarendragoud@gmail.com

Contents of the Course

Unit-I. Soil- Stabilized Road: Preliminary investigation,

materials, techniquesof stabilizations, methods of stabilization,
mechanical, Mehras Method, Soil cement, soil bitumen and soil
lime stabilization

UNIT-II. Flexible and Rigid Pavement Design:GI Method,

IRC revised CBR,design of rigid pavement - Concepts of ESWL,
stresses due to Loads, temperature, warping, friction & critical
combination, IRC method of Rigid pavement Design.

UNIT-III. Pavement Distress and Evaluation:Skid

resistance, structuralevaluation, Benklemen beams method,
overlays
Highways drainage Importance, requirements, surface drainage
systems, sub-surface drainage system.

Contents of the Course

UNIT-IV. Highway Capacity & Economic Evaluation:Concept
of PCU (IRC), LoS concept, factors, multilane capacities for rural,
urban, and express ways, concept of transport cost & benefits, B/C
ratio, NPV, ROR, and their relative comparison for evaluation.
Accidents, causes, methodologies for accident causing precautions
to minimize the accidents.
UNIT-V.Travel Demand Management:Traffic management
systems (TMS) -Restrictions on turning movements, one way
streets, tidel Flow -operations, exclusive bus lanes.
Traffic relief at junctions, parking studies, parking inventories, types
of parking service, parking analysis, bottlenecks
Nature and traffic problems in cities. Effect on environment due to
traffic noise and air pollution
introduction to computer applications in traffic and transport
planning

REFERENCES
1. S K Khanna & C E G Jesto Highway Engineering
2. L.R. Kadiyali, (2000)Principles and Practice of
HighwayEngineering ,Khanna Publications, New Delhi.
3. Sharma, S. K. (2012)Principles, Practices and Design of
HighwayEngineering including Airport Pavements.S. Chand andCompany
ltd, New Delhi.
4. Huang, Y. H.Pavement Analysis and Design,Prentice Hall,Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey, 2004.
5. Yoder, E. J.; Witczak, M. W. (2012)Principles of PavementDesign,2nd
Edition, John Wiley and Sons, Indian Edition, New Delhi.
6. F.L. Mannering, W.P. Kilareski and S.S. Washburn,Principles of Highway
Engineering and Traffic Analysis,John Wiley & Sons,2005.
7. IRC 37-2001,12 Guidelines for Design of flexible pavements
8. IRC 58-2002 Guidelines for Design of Rigid pavements
9. IRC SP 72-2007 Guidelines for Design of Flexible pavements for low volume
rural roads
10.IRC SP 62-2004 Guidelines for Design of Rigid pavements for low volume
rural roads
11.IRC 81:1997 BBD survey and Overlay design

Unit-1: Soil- Stabilized Roads

1. Definition, Need, Purpose, Principles of soil
stabilization
2. Preliminary investigation
3. Materials
4. Techniquesof stabilization
5. Methods of stabilization
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

Mechanical stabilization
Mehras Method
Soil cement stabilization
Soil bitumen stabilization and
Soil lime stabilization

6. Methods of construction

Definition of Soil Stabilization

Process of treating a soil to maintain, alter or
improve the performance of the soil as a
construction material
The changes in the soil properties are brought
about either by the incorporation of
Additives or
By Mechanical blending of different soil types

Need for Soil Stabilization

Limited Financial Resources to Provide a
complete

network Road System to build in

conventional method

Effective utilization of locally available soils

and other suitable stabilizing agents.

Encouraging the use of Industrial Wastages

in building low cost construction of roads.

Purpose of soil stabilization

To improve the strength

To economize the road cost
To make use of locally available material
To reduce high plasticity, excessive
swelling/shrinkage
To control dust
To facilitate compaction and increase load
bearing capacity
To reduce frost susceptibility, compressibility,
settlements
To improve permeability characteristics

Basic Principles of Soil Stabilization

Evaluating the properties of given soil
Deciding the lacking property of soil and choose
effective and economical method of soil stabilization
Designing the Stabilized soil mix for intended stability
and durability values
Consideration

and

selection

of

construction procedure of stabilized layer

appropriate

2. Preliminary investigation for Soil Stabilized

Roads

Investigation of route and alignment

Soil survey and field identification of soils
Survey for availability of materials and
transportation
Source identification, index map

Laboratory tests on soils

Sampling from site and detailed investigation of
Index and Engineering properties

Soil classification
IS Classification, HRB or Revised PCA method

Laboratory tests on soils

Grain Size Analysis

D10, D30, D50, D60

Coefficient of Uniformity, Cu
Coefficient Curvature, CC
Passing0.075mm, P4.75mm-R0.075mm, Retained4.75mm

Atterberg Limits
Liquid Limit
Plastic Limit
Plasticity Index (PI)

Free Swell Index

Compaction Curve (MDD-OMC)
Standard Proctor test
Modified Proctor test

California Bearing Ratio (CBR), C-, Resilient Modulus(MR)

Soil classification
IS Classification

Soil classification
HRB or Modified PRA classification system
Widely used for highway purpose
Two major groups,
1. Passing 75micron 35% or less
2. Passing75micron more than 35%

3. Materials for Stabilization

Aggregate (Crushed stone, sand, slag)
Fine Soil (silt and clay)
Stabilizers/Additives

Lime
Cement
Fly-ash (cementing)
Bituminous materials (water proofing and binding)
Polymers (water proofing and binding)
Calcium chloride CaCl (used as dust-palliative)
Sodium Chloride NaCl (compaction aiding and evaporation
preventing)
Sodium silicate NaSi (used for sandy soil stabilization)
Lignin (by-product from paper industry used as cementing binder)
Resins (woods product used to reduce water absorption)
Molasses (by-product from sugar industry used as dust-palliative)

4. Techniquesof stabilization
1. Proportioning technique
(fines+sand+gravel)

2. Cementing agents
(cement,lime,fly-ash)

3. Modifying agents
(lime)

4. Water proofing agents

(bituminous materials, polymers)

5. Water repelling agents

(vinsol resin-wood product)

6. Water retaining agents

(calcium chloride)

7. Heat treatment
(clayey soils, soft aggregate)

8. Chemical stabilization
(sodium silicate)

5. Methods of stabilization
A. Mechanical stabilization
Intelligent blending of local materials to obtain desired grading
Internal friction improvement by coarser particles
Cohesion improvement by clay fraction
Applications:
1. Soil-Aggregate mixtures
2. Sand-clay mixtures
3. Sand-gravel mixtures
4. Stabilization of soil with soft aggregates

B. Stabilization by additives
. Lime
. Cement
. Fly-ash
. Bituminous materials
. Polymers, Calcium chloride, Sodium Chloride, Sodium silicate,
Lignin, Resins, Molasses

Mechanical Stabilization
Factors Affecting Mechanical Stabilization

Mechanical Strength of aggregates

Gradation
Properties of the Soil
Presence of Salts
Compaction

Mechanical Stabilization-Mix Design

Soil and aggregate mixed in suitable proportions to
achieve Dense and stable mixes
Particle size distribution is a major factor in
determining the stability of the mix
To achieve high value of density grain size
distribution should follow the Fullers curve given by
p=100(d/D)n
Where p=percentage passing any sieve
d=aperture of the sieve in question
D=the maximum size of the aggregate
n=exponential, 0.45 to 0.5
Voids between larger stones filled by smaller particles and
inter-particle friction ignored

Fullers curve
p = 100(d/D)n
Where n=0.45
D=37.5mm
d=sieve size
Sieve size
%
[mm] passing, p
37.5
25
19
12.5
9.5
4.75
2.36
1.18
0.600
0.300
0.150
0.075

100.0
83.3
73.6
61.0
53.9
39.5
28.8
21.1
15.6
11.4
8.3
6.1

100
90
80
70
60
50

Percentage passing, %
40
30
20
10
0
0.01

0.1

Sieve Size, mm

10

100

Proportioning of Materials
Two graphical methods in common use for
proportioning of materials are,
Triangular chart method and
Rothfuch's method
Trail and error method (bituminous/concrete mix
design)

Triangular chart Method

This method is applicable when three materials are to
be mixed
The materials may be conveniently divided as coarse
aggregate, sand and fines and their percentages are
marked on a triangular chart
Let materials A, B and C are coarse, medium and fines
respectively.
Points A, B and C are plotted on the triangular chart
knowing the grain size distribution.
Point D is plotted in the triangular chart representing
the desired gradation.

Triangular chart Method

-2
m

m
.06
-0

A=85+10+5
B=15+75+1
0
C=5+70+25

30
m

2m

Now the graphical construction for obtaining the

proportion of A, B and C is made by producing the line
CD to meet the line AB to E.

D=42.5+12.
5+45

<0.06mm

Rothfuch's method
It is used when a No. of materials have to be mixed
together for obtaining appropriate gradation
Gradation may be decided either based upon
recommended grain size distribution charts or by any
equation like Fuller's gradation
On a graph paper when Y-axis represents % passing and
X-axis representing particle size a diagonal line is drawn
from point corresponding to 100% particles passing i.e
maximum particle size passing to a point corresponding to
0% passing i.e smallest particle size
For different materials sieve analysis has to be done and
percentage finer has to be calculated
Obtain balancing straight lines of each material by
allowing only minimum of the areas on the either sides of
the balancing lines

Rothfuch's method
Draw Balancing lines for each material,
Join opposite ends of A&B, B&C
Points where these lines meet the Desired Gradation line represent the
proportions in which type materials A, B and C are to be mixed
Read values from Y-axis by projecting the Points of intersection

Stabilization of soil with soft aggregates

(Mehras Method)
Soft aggregates Gravel, moorum and kankar (an
impure form of lime stone mixed with clay and earth),
over burnt bricks are also used for road construction
A method of stabilization using brick aggregates and
soil was suggested by S.R. Mehra
The principle behind this method is to embed in a soil
mortar, course aggregates roughly 1/3rd of the total
volume.
Each aggregate is enveloped all round in the
compacted soil and is protected from crushing effect
of traffic

Stabilization of soil with soft aggregates

(Mehras Method)
Construction method in Brief
Soil collection from approved borrow pits and road side stacking
Spreading, water sprinkling up to OMC and mixing
leveling to proper grades and desired camber
115mm thick loose base course sandy soil compact using 8 ton
roller to a thickness of 75mm
Surface course material Brick aggregate + soil in the ratio of 1:2
mixed with adequate water is spread to 115mm loose thickness
and compact to 75mm
After rolling the surface is watered and left overnight. The surface
is again rolled and finished
The road is closed to traffic for 4 to 5 days and kept sprinkled
with water
After 2 weeks opened to traffic, initially only rubber tyred vehicles
allowed
With bituminous surfacing it can perform better

Compaction of Soil
By applying energy through
Static Rolling
Ramming or Impact
Vibration

Different Rollers include

Smooth wheel rollers

Sheeps foot or Pad foot Rollers (Cohesive soils)
Pneumatic Tyred Rollers
Vibratory Rollers (Cohesionless soils)
Combination Rollers
Intelligent Compactors (GPS connected, real time
monitoring)

Soil cement stabilization

Addition of cement to soil improve its strength
Almost all soils can be treated with cement
Soil cement is able to spread the load over a wide area and
bridge over locally weak spots of the underlying sub-grade or
sub base
Quantity of Cement 4 to 14%
Unconfined Compressive Strength 1.7 to 2.76MN/sq.m at 7days
Factors affecting strength of soil cement mixes

Cement content
Moisture content
Soil type
Degree of pulverization in mixing
Mixing
Compaction
Curing

Soil bitumen stabilization

Bitumen treatment binds particles together
(cohesion improvement)
Bitumen treated mixture becomes less prone
to the adverse effects caused by ingress of
water
Spray of bitumen on surface of low-volume
roads can prevent dust and stop the entry of
water into the road
types of bitumen treatment
1. Soil aggregate bitumen
2. Bitumen spray

Soil bitumen stabilization

Different Binder type:

Road tars
Bitumen Cut-backs
Bitumen emulsions
Foamed bitumen
Treatment

Approx. quantity of
Bitumen

sand bitumen

4-10%

Soil bitumen

4-8%

Soil aggregate
bitumen

2-6%

Bitumen spray

5 lit/sq.m 2-3applications

Soil Lime Stabilization

The aluvial silty soils of northern plains, Delta clayey
soils, Black-cotton soils and Moorums are suitable
Lime (Ca(OH)2) treatment reduces plasticity
substantially
Soil swell and shrinkage potential significantly reduces
Unconfined Compressive strength of 28days cured
specimens may be of the order of 0.7 to 1.7MN/sq.m
Quantity of lime 4-10% by weight of dry soil
Benefits of lime stabilization are influenced by

Purity of lime
Fineness of lime
Degree of pulverization of soil
Degree of compaction
Curing conditions

Lime Treatment Process

The traditional method of lime treatment is

Spread the lime on the surface of the clay

Mix it thoroughly
Allow the lime-clay mix to mellow
Compact the mix (at or slightly wet of OMC)
Allow the compacted material to cure

What is the point of Mellowing ?

Ensure all quicklime is fully hydrated

Ensure ions penetrate into the clay lumps
and modify the clay fully
Sulphates in the soil will react to form Ettringite via a highly
expansive reaction
and compaction effects will be lost
BUT if it forms during mellowing, all that is lost is some lime
Thus while mellowing will reduce the ultimate strength to some
degree it can be used to practical advantage

Lime Treated Clay Soil-Reactions

Adding quicklime to wet clay causes
CaO + H2O Ca2+ + OH- + heat
i.e. Hydration of quicklime and steam production
Reduced water content
Rapid improvement occurs via modification
reactions

Reduced thickness of adsorbed water layer

Clay particle agglomeration (flocculation)
Textural change
Increased internal angle of friction
Reduced plasticity (raised PL)

Lime Treated Clay-Change in Density

Lime Dosage

6. Methods of construction
1. In-place or in-situ mixing

2. In-plant mixing
A. Stationery plant
B. Travelling/Mobile plant

In-situ Mixing

Mobile Plant Mixing

Field Control during construction

Test
Screening over 4.75mm
sieve
Moisture density
relationship
Field density and
moisture content
Stabilizer content
Compressive strength
test of stabilized mix

Purpose of test
To check pulverization
To form basis for field density
check
To monitor and control field
compaction
To check application rate and
uniformity
To determine effectiveness of
stabilizer mixing

Post construction tests

Test
Stabilizer content (total
quantity used)
Compressive strength
test of field cores
Wetting and drying
tests on cores
Field moisture content

Purpose of test
To check application rate and
uniformity
To determine effectiveness
stabilizer mixing, compaction
and curing
Same as above and also to
check loss of strength on
alternate drying and wetting
To determine moisture loss
during curing