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History, Characteristics, Issues,

Challenges of IS

What is Artificial Intelligence?

Understand intelligent entities

Build intelligent entities

Learn more about ourselves/animals

Create things that exhibit intelligence

Study constructed intelligent entities

These constructed entities are interesting and


useful in their own right!

What is Artificial Intelligence?

Scientific Goal

To determine which ideas about knowledge


representation, learning, rule systems, search, and so on,
explain various sorts of real intelligence

Engineering Goal

To solve real world problems using AI techniques such as


knowledge representation, learning, rule systems, search,
and so on

IS problems

Formal tasks - playing board or card games,


solving puzzles, mathematical and logic
problems

Expert tasks - medical diagnosis,


engineering, scheduling, computer hardware
design

Mundane tasks - everyday speech, written


language, perception, walking, handling

What is Artificial Intelligence?

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the part of CS concerned


with designing intelligent computer systems, that is,
systems that exhibit characteristics we associate
with intelligence in human behaviour
understanding language, learning, reasoning, solving
problems, and so on. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981)

The study of the computations that make it possible


to perceive, reason, and act (Winston, 1992)

The branch of computer science that is concerned


with the automation of intelligent behaviour (Luger
and Stubblefield, 1993)

History of IS

1943: Warren Mc Culloch and Walter Pitts: a model


of artificial boolean neurons to perform
computations

First steps toward connectionist computation and learning


(Hebbian learning)
Marvin Minsky and Dean Edmonds (1951) constructed the
first neural network computer

Made out of 3000 vacuum tubes and a surplus automatic pilot


mechanism from a B-24 bomber
Simulated a network of 40 neurons

1950: Alan Turings Computing Machinery and


Intelligence

First complete vision of AI


Anticipated all major arguments against AI in following 50
years

History of AI

1956: Dartmouth Workshop

Brings together top minds on automata theory, neural


nets and the study of intelligence
Allen Newell and Herbert Simon: the logic theorist (first
non-numerical thinking program used for theorem
proving)

Proved 38 of the first 52 theorems in Principia Mathematica,


found more elegant proofs for some

For the next 20 years the field was dominated by these


participants

1952-1969

Newell and Simon introduced the General Problem Solver:


imitation of human problem-solving
Arthur Samuel investigated game playing (checkers) with
great success
John McCarthy (inventor of Lisp)

Logic oriented, Advice Taker (separation between knowledge


and reasoning)

History of IS continues

The first generation of AI researchers made these


predictions about their work:

1957, SimonandNewell: "within ten years a digital


computer will be the world's chess champion" and "within
ten years a digital computer will discover and prove an
important new mathematical theorem."
1965,Simon: "machines will be capable, within twenty
years, of doing any work a man can do."
1967,Marvin Minsky: "Within a generation ... the problem
of creating 'artificial intelligence' will substantially be
solved."
1970,Marvin Minsky: "In from three to eight years we will
have a machine with the general intelligence of an
average human being.

Expectations were high!

History of IS

Collapse in AI research (1966 - 1973)

Progress was slower than expected

Some systems lacked scalability

Unrealistic predictions
Combinatorial explosion in search

Fundamental limitations on techniques and


representations

Minsky and Papert (1969) Perceptrons


Research funding for neural net research soon dwindled
to almost nothing

History of AI

AI revival through knowledge-based systems


(1969-1970)

General-purpose vs. domain specific

Expert systems

MYCIN to diagnose blood infections (Feigenbaum et al.)


introduction of uncertainty in reasoning

Increase in knowledge representation research

E.g. the DENDRAL project (Buchanan et al. 1969) first


successful knowledge intensive system (large numbers
of rules)

Logic, frames, semantic nets,

AI winter (1974-1980)

Lighthill report highly critical of some areas

History of IS

AI becomes an industry (1980 - present)

Connectionist revival (1986 - present)

XCON at DEC (1980) saved the company $40m


p.a.
Fifth Generation Project in Japan (1981) $850m
to build machines that could make conversations,
translate languages, interpret pictures, and reason
like humans

Parallel distributed processing (Rumelhart and


McClelland,1986); backpropagation
Symbolic models vs connectionism

AI becomes a science (1987 - present)

History of IS

1990s

Emergence of intelligent agents: bots! (Webots)


Machine learning (Incremental Learning, Iterative
Learning, Systemic Learning)
Genetic algorithms and

its approaches,
with extensions,
mapping,
applicability,
enhancements

2000+

Dealing with large datasets


Swarm intelligence
...
Large field, lots of applications

IS and Games

Classic Games

Noughts and Crosses


Chess - Deep Blue 1997

1957 - Newell and Simon predicted that a computer


would be chess champion within ten years
Simon : I was a little far-sighted with chess, but there
was no way to do it with machines that were as slow as
the ones way back then

Connect 4, Othello, Backgammon, Scrabble,


Bridge, Go

Current Games

Strategy/Tactical/Combat (F.E.A.R., Crysis)


RPG/Adventure
Artificial Life (Creatures, Spore)

IS approaches

Thinking vs Acting
Human vs Rational

(acting = behaviour)
(rationality = doing the right

thing)

Systems that
think like humans

Systems that
think rationally

(cognitive science)

(logic/laws of thought)

Systems that act


like humans

Systems that act


rationally

(c.f. Turing test)

(agents)

Intelligence & Systems

AI often burdened with over-promising and


grandiosity

The gap between AI engineering and AI as a model


of intelligence is so large that trying to bridge it
almost inevitably leads to assertions that later
prove embarrassing

McCarthy said AI was the science and


engineering of making intelligent machines

So how can we determine if a program is


intelligent?

Strong vs Weak IS

Debate as to whether some forms of AI can


truly reason and solve problems

Strong AI: Machine can actually think


intelligently
Weak AI: Machine can possibly act intelligently

John Searle

...according to strong AI, the computer is not


merely a tool in the study of the mind; rather, the
appropriately programmed computer really is a
mind

Turing Test (1950)


Human
interrogator

Human

AI System

Turing's argument is essentially: If a computer


can fool a judge into thinking it is human, we
must acknowledge it is able to think like a
human

Turing Test (1950)

What techniques are required?

Natural language processingto enable it to


communicate successfully in English (or some
other human language)
Knowledge representationto store information
provided before or during the interrogation
Automated reasoningto use the stored
information to answer questions and to draw new
conclusions
Machine learningto adapt to new circumstances
and to detect and extrapolate patterns

Turing Test (1950)

AI researchers have devoted little effort to


passing the Turing test

Believe that studying principles of intelligence is


more important than duplicating something else

Precedent? The quest for artificial flight

Succeeded when people stopped imitating birds


and learned aerodynamics
Aeronautical engineering does not define its goal
as making machines that fly so exactly like
pigeons that they can fool even other pigeons

Chinese Room

Searle argued that behaving intelligently was


not enough (1980)

Thought experiment - the Chinese Room

You are in a room with an opening through which


Chinese sentences are passed
You have a rule book that allows you to look up
these sentences although you do not speak
Chinese
The book tells you how to reply to them in Chinese
You can then behave in an apparently intelligent
way

Chinese Room

Searle claimed that although they appeared


intelligent, computers would be using the
equivalent of a rule book

The rule book and stacks of paper, just being paper, do


not understand Chinese

Within the article setting out the Chinese Room


experiment, Searle set out some possible
arguments against his contention that the
individual in the Chinese Room could not be said
to understand

What does it all mean?


The Chinese Room argument has provoked much

Watson

In 2011, Watson beat the two most successful


Jeopardy players

http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-12491688
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-17547694

But is this intelligence???

DeepQA article:

http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=
&arnumber=6177810
http://www.aaai.org/Magazine/Watson/watson.php

Ethics and AI

Weve looked at whether we can develop AI,


but not whether we should

The problems that AI poses:

People might lose jobs to automation


People might have too much/little leisure time
People might lose some of their privacy rights
Loss of accountability whos to blame if things go
wrong?
Success of AI might mean end of human race!

Almost any technology has the potential to cause harm


in the wrong hands

Branches of AI (John McCarthy)

Logical AI: What a program knows about the world in general the

facts of the specific situation in which it must act, and its goals are all
represented by sentences of some mathematical logical language. The
program decides what to do by inferring that certain actions are appropriate
for achieving its goals.

Search: AI programs often examine large numbers of possibilities, e.g.


moves in a chess game or inferences by a theorem proving program.
Discoveries are continually made about how to do this more efficiently in
various domains.

Pattern recognition: When a program makes observations of


some kind, it is often programmed to compare what it sees with a pattern.
For example, a vision program may try to match a pattern of eyes and a
nose in a scene in order to find a face. More complex patterns, e.g. in a
natural language text, in a chess position, or in the history of some event
are also studied. These more complex patterns require quite different
methods than do the simple patterns that have been studied the most.

Representation: Facts about the world have to be represented in


some way. Usually languages of mathematical logic are used.

Branches of AI (John McCarthy)

Inference: From some facts, others can be inferred. Mathematical

logical deduction is adequate for some purposes, but new methods of nonmonotonic inference have been added to logic since the 1970s. The
simplest kind of non-monotonic reasoning is default reasoning in which a
conclusion is to be inferred by default, but the conclusion can be withdrawn
if there is evidence to the contrary. Ordinary logical reasoning is monotonic
in that the set of conclusions that can the drawn from a set of premises is a
monotonic increasing function of the premises.

Commonsense knowledge and reasoning: This

is the area in which AI is farthest from human-level, in spite of the fact that
it has been an active research area since the 1950s. While there has been
considerable progress, e.g. in developing systems of non-monotonic
reasoning and theories of action, yet more new ideas are needed.

Learning from experience: Programs do that. The

approaches to AI based on connectionism and neural nets specialize in that.


There is also learning of laws expressed in logic. Programs can only learn
what facts or behaviours their formalisms can represent, and unfortunately
learning systems are almost all based on very limited abilities to represent
information.

Branches of AI (John McCarthy)

Planning: Planning programs start with general facts about the world
(especially facts about the effects of actions), facts about the particular
situation and a statement of a goal. From these, they generate a strategy
for achieving the goal. In the most common cases, the strategy is just a
sequence of actions.

Epistemology: This is a study of the kinds of knowledge that are


required for solving problems in the world.

Ontology: Ontology is the study of the kinds of things that exist. In AI,
the programs and sentences deal with various kinds of objects, and we
study what these kinds are and what their basic properties are. Emphasis
on ontology began in the 1990s.

Heuristics: A heuristic is a way of trying to discover something or an


idea embedded in a program. The term is used variously in AI. Heuristic
functions are used in some approaches to search to measure how far a
node in a search tree seems to be from a goal. Heuristic predicates that
compare two nodes in a search tree to see if one is better than the other,
i.e. constitutes an advance toward the goal, may be more useful.

Genetic programming: Genetic programming is a technique


for getting programs to solve a task by mating random programs and
selecting fittest in millions of generations.

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