Você está na página 1de 41

Energy Bands: Energy Levels in

an Atom
The energy of the electron in the
hydrogen atom, Bohrs atom,
Schrdingers atom, see

http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=-YYBCNQnYNM

1
Energy Bands in Solids

In a metal the various energy bands overlap to give a single band of


energies that is only partially full of electrons. There are states with
2
energies up to the vacuumlevel where the electron is free.
Energy Bands in Solids

Energy band diagram of a semiconductor. 3


Energy Bands in Solids
When an external field Ex is
applied, electrons near EF0 can
gain energy from the field
because there are empty energy
levels above EF0.These
electrons can then accelerate
along x under the action of the
applied force eEx. As an
electron moves from a to b to c
and so on, its KE increases but
eventually it collides with a
lattice vibration and loses the
gained energy.
4
Energy Bands in Solids
(a) An external force Fext
applied to an electron in
vacuum results in an
acceleration
avac = Fext / me .
(b) An external force Fext
applied to an electron in a
crystal results in an
acceleration
acryst = Fext / me*
5
Energy Bands in Solids: Summary
and Control Questions
Major energy bands: valence band (holes) and conduction
band (electrons)
Electron vacuum level (see external photo-effect, physics
introductory course) : electron without crystal field (no ions)
Metal and semiconductor basic properties from energy band
theory point-of-view: optical and electrical properties

6
The Density of States: Summary
The density-of-states is a number of energy states per unit
volume (cm-3) per unit energy (eV-1) available for carriers
(electrons/holes) to occupy. It, usually, varies between 1018
cm-3eV-1 and 1020 cm-3eV-1 . It closely connected to the
famous Avogadro's number, 6.022 x 1023 of entities (atoms or
molecules) per mole.
A mole is the amount of substance of a system,
which contains as many elementary entities as
there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram (or 12 grams)
of carbon-12.

7
Carrier Statistics: Very Briefly

(a) Above T=0 K some of the electrons are at energies above E F. (b) The
density of states, g(E) vs E in the band. (c) The probability of occupancy of
a state at an energy E is f(E). (d) The product g(E)f(E) is the number of
electrons per unit energy per unit volume or electron concentration per
unit energy. The area under the curve with the energy axis is the 8
concentration of electrons in the band.
Equilibrium and Non-
equilibrium Carriers

A simplified two dimensional view of a region of the Si


crystal showing covalent bonds, and the energy band
diagram at absolute zero of temperature. 9
Equilibrium and Non-
equilibrium Carriers
Thermal vibrations of
atoms can break bonds
and thereby create
electron-hole pairs.

10
Equilibrium and Non-
equilibrium Carriers

A pictorial illustration of a hole in the valence band


wandering around the crystal due to the tunneling of
electrons from neighboring bonds. 11
Equilibrium and Non-
equilibrium Carriers
Energy band diagram and
density of states (number of
states per unit energy per unit
volume).

Fermi
energy
level

12
Equilibrium and Non-
equilibrium Carriers
Energy band diagram.
(and Fermi-Dirac
probability function
(probability of
occupancy of a state).
The product of g(E)
and f(E) is the energy
density of electrons in
the CB (number of
electrons per unit
energy per unit
volume). The area
under nE(E) vs. E is
the electron
concentration in the 13
conduction band.
Semiconductor Statistics:
Classical Statistical Physics

James Clerk Maxwell and Ludwig Boltzmann


14
Semiconductor Statistics:
Quantum Statistics Spin Particles

Enrico Fermi, Paul Dirac and Wolfgang Pauli

15
Semiconductor Statistics:
Quantum Statistics No Spin

Satyendra Nath Bose and Albert Einstein

16
Fermi Energy Level in
Semiconductors
For electrons, the Pauli exclusion principle states that no more
than two electrons (with opposite spins) can occupy a given
energy level. Electrons tend to occupy states with low energies
first. Hence, all the states with low energies are filled in exactly
the same way one electron in each energy state (counting the
two states with the same energy available for electrons with
opposite spins as two separate states). At such low energies, the
electron probability function, f, must be equal to unity since all
these states are occupied. However at high values of energy, when
the probability of occupying an energy state is much smaller than
unity, the Pauli principle presents no limitation, and the distribution
function should reduce to the Boltzmann distribution function. A
more detailed analysis shows that the electron distribution function
is given by the Fermi-Dirac distribution function. 17
Carrier Statistics
The Boltzmann energy
distribution describes the
statistics of particles, e.g.
electrons, when the
particles do not interact
with each other, i.e. when
there are very few
electrons compared with
the number of available
states.

18
Carrier Statistics
The Fermi-Dirac function,
f(E), describes the statistics
of electrons in a solid. The
electrons interact with each
other and the environment
so that they obey the Pauili
Exclusion Principle.
Fermi
energy
level EF

19
Carrier Statistics: Fermi
Energy Level
Vacuum Fermi Dirac function,
f(E) and the energy
density of electrons,
n(E), at three different
temperatures. The
electron concentration
extends more and more
to higher energies as
Fermi the temperature
energy increases. Electrons
level with energies in
excess of EF+ can
leave the metal
(thermionic emission).
20
Energy distribution: Comparison

The distribution function


f(E) is the probability that a
particle is in energy state E.

21
Energy distribution: Comparison
Compare the MaxwellBoltzmann and Fermi-Dirac Distributions

22
Energy distribution: Comparison
Compare the MaxwellBoltzmann and Fermi-Dirac
Distributions

23
Semiconductor Statistics:
MB (classic) and FD (quantum)
E 5 eV
MB : f MB A exp ,
B k 8.62 10
k T K
B

1
FD : f FD
E EF
1 exp
k B T
E E F
1 exp , E EF k BT f FD 1
k BT
E EF
1 exp , E E F k BT f FD f MB
k BT
24
Fermi-Dirac statistics vs Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics
Intrinsic Semiconductors:
Fermi Energy Level
In a metal, Fermi energy level
separates empty energy states from
Empty occupied energy states.

EF

Occupied

25
Intrinsic Semiconductors:
Fermi Energy Level
In a semiconductor, Fermi energy
EC level EF represents the average
energy of all particles (e, h) in the
EF system. Since in an intrinsic
Eg semiconductor ne=nh and electrons
Eg/2
are near the bottom of EC and holes
EV are near the top of EV, EF is exactly in
the middle of Eg.

26
Intrinsic Semiconductors
E EC EC
T=0K conducting T>0K
EG electrons EG

EV EV
valence electrons holes
x
EG
n p n N c N v exp
2
i
k BT
The temperature dependence of the conducting electron
concentration in an intrinsic semiconductor is represented
27
by MB statistics.
Intrinsic Semiconductors
E EC The number of
conducting T>0K conducting electrons is
electrons EG
EF always equal to the
number of holes.
EV valence electrons
holes (not important)
x
E
n p ni2 N c N v exp G
k BT
E E
n N c N v exp G ; E EC E F G
2k BT 2
28
Conducting electrons in an intrinsic semiconductor
Intrinsic Semiconductors:
Calculating carrier concentration

EG
n N c N v exp
2 k T
B

Example : Si, N c N v 1019 cm 3 ; EG 1.1 eV ,


T 300 K ; k B 8.62 105 eV K 1
E
ni pi N c exp G
2k BT
1.1 3 eV
10 exp
19
5
cm
2 300
8.62 10 eV K1 K
1.1 10

3
1019 exp 1019
5.8
10 1010
cm
2 0.026
29
Conducting electrons in an intrinsic Si at room
temperature
Equilibrium Carriers in an Intrinsic
Semiconductors: Fermi Energy Level
EC EG
n N c N v exp ;
EF 2k BT
Eg EG
Eg/2 E EC E F Ei
2
EV EG E F
n N c N v exp
k BT
In an intrinsic
semiconductor, Fermi 1 NV
energy level is very close
EF Ei kT ln
2 NC
to the middle of the energy
gap.
30
Intrinsic and Doped
Semiconductors: Impurities
Arsenic (group V) doped Si
crystal. The four valence
electrons of As allow it to bond
just like Si but the fifth electron is
left orbiting the As site. The
energy required to release to free
fifth-electron into the CB is very
small.

31
Intrinsic and Doped
Semiconductors: Impurities
In a doped
semiconductor,
nenh. Thus, there
are majority and
minority carriers.
EF

Energy band diagram for an n-type Si doped with 1 ppm As.


There are donor energy levels just below Ec around As+ sites.
32
Note that EF moves toward EC.
Intrinsic and Doped
Semiconductors: Impurities

Boron doped Si crystal. B has only three valence electrons. When it


substitutes for a Si atom one of its bonds has an electron missing and
therefore a hole as shown in (a). The hole orbits around the B site by the
tunneling of electrons from neighboring bonds as shown in (b). Eventually,
thermally vibrating Si atoms provides enough energy to free the hole from
33
the B site into the VB as shown.
Intrinsic and Doped
Semiconductors: Impurities
Energy band diagram
for a p-type Si doped
with 1 ppm B. There
are acceptor energy
levels just above Ev
around B sites. These
acceptor levels accept
electrons from the VB
and therefore create
holes in the VB.

34
Intrinsic and Doped
Semiconductors: Impurities
In an n-type
semiconductor,
electrons are
majority carriers
EF
and Fermi energy
level EF is close
EC. In p-type
semiconductor,
holes are majority
carriers and EF is
close EV.
35
Carrier Statistics in Intrinsic
and Doped Semiconductors

Energy band diagrams for (a) intrinsic (b) n-type


and (c) p-type semiconductors. The Fermi energy level is
shown. 36
Carrier Concentration in an n-
type Semiconductor
Energy band diagrams for (a)
intrinsic (b) n-type and (c) p-type
semiconductors. The Fermi energy
level is shown.

EC ED
nn ni N D exp N D Ionized donors
k BT
ni2
pn Minority carriers
ND
N D
EC EF Ei kT ln Fermi energy level
ni 37
Doped Semiconductor Conductivity
Temperature Dependence and EF

(a) Below Ts, the electron concentration is controlled by the ionization of the
donors. (b) Between Ts and Ti, the electron concentration is equal to the
concentration of donors since they would all have ionized. (c) At high
temperatures, thermally generated electrons from the VB exceed the number of
38
electrons from ionized donors and the semiconductor behaves as if intrinsic.
Heavily Doped Semiconductors

(a) Degenerate n-type semiconductor. (b) Degenerate p-type


semiconductor.
39
Heavily Doped (Degenerate)
Semiconductors
EC In a degenerate semiconductor, Fermi
energy level is no longer within the
EF
energy gap. This is due to the fact that
ED impurity concentration becomes
Eg comparable with the density of states
in EC (EV). Thus, transition from
heavily doped n-type Si into
degenerate Si is ND NC (1019 cm-3).
EV Because of high carrier concentration,
MB statistics is no longer applicable.
Degenerate semiconductor
conductivity temperature dependence
40
is similar to that in metals.
Control Questions and an Exercise
1. Sketch energy band diagram for a semiconductor with an
energy gap of 1.0 eV.
2. Show position of Fermi level (a) an n-type, (b) p-type,
(c) intrinsic and (d) degenerate n-type semiconductor.
3. Can density of states be greater than Avogadro's
number?
4. Assuming that conduction and valence band density of
states in Si are ~ 1019 cm-3, energy gap is 1.1 eV
calculate number of electrons in Si at temperature
T= 500K. Check units.
41

Você também pode gostar