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an Atom
The energy of the electron in the
hydrogen atom, Bohrs atom,
Schrdingers atom, see
http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=-YYBCNQnYNM
1
Energy Bands in Solids
6
The Density of States: Summary
The density-of-states is a number of energy states per unit
volume (cm-3) per unit energy (eV-1) available for carriers
(electrons/holes) to occupy. It, usually, varies between 1018
cm-3eV-1 and 1020 cm-3eV-1 . It closely connected to the
famous Avogadro's number, 6.022 x 1023 of entities (atoms or
molecules) per mole.
A mole is the amount of substance of a system,
which contains as many elementary entities as
there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram (or 12 grams)
of carbon-12.
7
Carrier Statistics: Very Briefly
(a) Above T=0 K some of the electrons are at energies above E F. (b) The
density of states, g(E) vs E in the band. (c) The probability of occupancy of
a state at an energy E is f(E). (d) The product g(E)f(E) is the number of
electrons per unit energy per unit volume or electron concentration per
unit energy. The area under the curve with the energy axis is the 8
concentration of electrons in the band.
Equilibrium and Non-
equilibrium Carriers
10
Equilibrium and Non-
equilibrium Carriers
Fermi
energy
level
12
Equilibrium and Non-
equilibrium Carriers
Energy band diagram.
(and Fermi-Dirac
probability function
(probability of
occupancy of a state).
The product of g(E)
and f(E) is the energy
density of electrons in
the CB (number of
electrons per unit
energy per unit
volume). The area
under nE(E) vs. E is
the electron
concentration in the 13
conduction band.
Semiconductor Statistics:
Classical Statistical Physics
15
Semiconductor Statistics:
Quantum Statistics No Spin
16
Fermi Energy Level in
Semiconductors
For electrons, the Pauli exclusion principle states that no more
than two electrons (with opposite spins) can occupy a given
energy level. Electrons tend to occupy states with low energies
first. Hence, all the states with low energies are filled in exactly
the same way one electron in each energy state (counting the
two states with the same energy available for electrons with
opposite spins as two separate states). At such low energies, the
electron probability function, f, must be equal to unity since all
these states are occupied. However at high values of energy, when
the probability of occupying an energy state is much smaller than
unity, the Pauli principle presents no limitation, and the distribution
function should reduce to the Boltzmann distribution function. A
more detailed analysis shows that the electron distribution function
is given by the Fermi-Dirac distribution function. 17
Carrier Statistics
The Boltzmann energy
distribution describes the
statistics of particles, e.g.
electrons, when the
particles do not interact
with each other, i.e. when
there are very few
electrons compared with
the number of available
states.
18
Carrier Statistics
The Fermi-Dirac function,
f(E), describes the statistics
of electrons in a solid. The
electrons interact with each
other and the environment
so that they obey the Pauili
Exclusion Principle.
Fermi
energy
level EF
19
Carrier Statistics: Fermi
Energy Level
Vacuum Fermi Dirac function,
f(E) and the energy
density of electrons,
n(E), at three different
temperatures. The
electron concentration
extends more and more
to higher energies as
Fermi the temperature
energy increases. Electrons
level with energies in
excess of EF+ can
leave the metal
(thermionic emission).
20
Energy distribution: Comparison
21
Energy distribution: Comparison
Compare the MaxwellBoltzmann and Fermi-Dirac Distributions
22
Energy distribution: Comparison
Compare the MaxwellBoltzmann and Fermi-Dirac
Distributions
23
Semiconductor Statistics:
MB (classic) and FD (quantum)
E 5 eV
MB : f MB A exp ,
B k 8.62 10
k T K
B
1
FD : f FD
E EF
1 exp
k B T
E E F
1 exp , E EF k BT f FD 1
k BT
E EF
1 exp , E E F k BT f FD f MB
k BT
24
Fermi-Dirac statistics vs Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics
Intrinsic Semiconductors:
Fermi Energy Level
In a metal, Fermi energy level
separates empty energy states from
Empty occupied energy states.
EF
Occupied
25
Intrinsic Semiconductors:
Fermi Energy Level
In a semiconductor, Fermi energy
EC level EF represents the average
energy of all particles (e, h) in the
EF system. Since in an intrinsic
Eg semiconductor ne=nh and electrons
Eg/2
are near the bottom of EC and holes
EV are near the top of EV, EF is exactly in
the middle of Eg.
26
Intrinsic Semiconductors
E EC EC
T=0K conducting T>0K
EG electrons EG
EV EV
valence electrons holes
x
EG
n p n N c N v exp
2
i
k BT
The temperature dependence of the conducting electron
concentration in an intrinsic semiconductor is represented
27
by MB statistics.
Intrinsic Semiconductors
E EC The number of
conducting T>0K conducting electrons is
electrons EG
EF always equal to the
number of holes.
EV valence electrons
holes (not important)
x
E
n p ni2 N c N v exp G
k BT
E E
n N c N v exp G ; E EC E F G
2k BT 2
28
Conducting electrons in an intrinsic semiconductor
Intrinsic Semiconductors:
Calculating carrier concentration
EG
n N c N v exp
2 k T
B
31
Intrinsic and Doped
Semiconductors: Impurities
In a doped
semiconductor,
nenh. Thus, there
are majority and
minority carriers.
EF
34
Intrinsic and Doped
Semiconductors: Impurities
In an n-type
semiconductor,
electrons are
majority carriers
EF
and Fermi energy
level EF is close
EC. In p-type
semiconductor,
holes are majority
carriers and EF is
close EV.
35
Carrier Statistics in Intrinsic
and Doped Semiconductors
EC ED
nn ni N D exp N D Ionized donors
k BT
ni2
pn Minority carriers
ND
N D
EC EF Ei kT ln Fermi energy level
ni 37
Doped Semiconductor Conductivity
Temperature Dependence and EF
(a) Below Ts, the electron concentration is controlled by the ionization of the
donors. (b) Between Ts and Ti, the electron concentration is equal to the
concentration of donors since they would all have ionized. (c) At high
temperatures, thermally generated electrons from the VB exceed the number of
38
electrons from ionized donors and the semiconductor behaves as if intrinsic.
Heavily Doped Semiconductors