Chapter 8- End

Effectors

Landstown High School Governors STEM &

Technology Academy
Advanced Robotics

February 20, 2017 Advanced Robotics 1

 Robot Geometry
In order to understand how end
effectors work on a robot, you must
understand Robot Geometry.

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 What is Robot Geometry?
The design of a robot arm needs to
take into consideration whether it is to
be able to cover a large area, perform
intricate movements, lift heavy loads
or move with great speed or a
combination of these things.
Robots can be programmed to do any
job, however it is best if a robot is
designed with some particular job in
mind.
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 This diagram has the axes
of motion marked with
arrows there are 3
Axes of Motion
A robot may in theory
have any number of axes.
The more axes there are
the more manoeuvrable
the robot is, however the
more complicated it will
be to program
Axes of motions do not
need to be rotations
they can be motions
along a straight line
Axes that allow rotations
are known as revolute
joints
Axes that allow
movement in a straight
line are known as
prismatic joints

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 The number of
independent Degrees of Freedom
directions in which
the end effector
(tool or gripper) of x
the robot can move
Any solid object has
a maximum of six
degrees of freedom Rx
X, Y and Z Ry
represent Rz
movement along a z y
line
Rx, Ry and Rz
represent rotations

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 Types of Robotic Arms

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 The Anthropomorphic
System
The articulated system
Like a human arm
(sections are joined
together)
Shoulder and Elbow
are used to refer to the
two joints
More sections can be
added if needed.
Most manoeuvrable
Used for paint spraying
Cannot cover a large area
Difficult to move the end
of the arm in a straight
line

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 The Cartesian System
The X, Y Z system three
independent directions
Best used when a large
area needs to be covered
Not good when intricate
movements are required
X axis allows the arm to
move along the work piece
Y axis allows the arm to
move towards and away
from the work piece
Z axis allows movement
upwards and downwards
The three movements are
at 90 degrees to the other
two
This robotic arm can move
over the surface of an
imaginary rectangle

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 The Cylindrical System
Similar to the cartesian
except no X axis
Arm can rotate on a
central support
Angle of rotation is
referred to by the
symbol
Three axis of motion (X,
Y, and Z )
This robotic arm can
move over the surface
of an imaginary circle
Can move much faster
than the cartesian robot
arm
Can be used for loading
or unloading

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 The Polar System

Spherical system
Same Y and Z axes as
cylindrical
Arm is pivoted so that it
can rotate in the vertical
plane instead of moving
up and down along the z
axis
This robotic arm can
cover the surface of a
sphere
Can move faster in the
vertical direction than a
cylindrical arm
Range of movement is
much more restricted

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 The SCARA System

Selective Compliant Assembly Robot Arm

All revolute joints in the arm rotate about
the vertical axes
Three degrees of freedom
Used for assembly operations

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 The Work Envelope
The work envelope is the area that a
robot can cover.
The exact size and shape of the work
envelope will be one of the main
factors in deciding whether the robot
is suitable for a particular job.
The size and shape vary enormously

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 Actuators
Actuator is the term used for the mechanism
that drives the robotic arm.
There are 3 main types of Actuators
1. Electric motors
2. Hydraulic
3. Pneumatic cylinder
Hydraulic and pneumatic actuators are
generally suited to driving prismatic joints since
they produce linear motion directly
Hydraulic and pneumatic actuators are also
known as linear actuators.
Electric motors are more suited to driving
revolute joints as they produce rotation

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 Hydraulic Actuators
A car makes use of a hydraulic system. If we look at
the braking system of the car we see that only
moderate force applied to the brake pedal is sufficient
to produce force large enough to stop the car.
The underlying principle of all hydraulic systems was
first discovered by the French scientist Blaise Pascal in
1653. He stated that if external pressure is applied to
a confined fluid, then the pressure is transferred
without loss to all surfaces in contact with the fluid
The word fluid can mean both a gas or a liquid
Where large forces are required we can expect to find
hydraulic devices (mechanical diggers on building
sites, pit props in coal mines and jacks for lifting cars
all use the principle of hydraulics.

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 Hydraulic Actuators
Each hydraulic actuator contains the following parts:
1. Pistons
2. Spring return piston
3. Double acting cylinder
4. Hydraulic transfer value
5. And in some cases a hydraulic accumulator
Advantages of the hydraulic mechanism
1. A hydraulic device can produce an enormous range of forces
without the need for gears, simply by controlling the flow of
fluid
2. Movement of the piston can be smooth and fast
3. Position of the piston can be controlled precisely by a low-
current electrically operated value
4. There are no sparks to worry about as there are with electrical
motor, so the system is safe to use in explosive atmospheres
such as in paint spraying or near inflammable materials

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 Pneumatic Actuators
A pneumatic actuator uses air instead of fluid
The relationship between force and area is the
same in a pneumatic system compared to a
hydraulic system
We know that air is compressible, so in order to
build up the pressure required to operate the
piston, extra work has to be done by the pump to
compress the air. This means that pneumatic
devices are less efficient
If you have ever used a bicycle pump you may
have noticed that it becomes hot as it is used.
The heat produced by the mechanical work done
in compressing the air. Heat represents wasted
energy.
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 Pneumatic Actuators
Advantages of the Pneumatic system:
1. Generally less expensive than an equivalent hydraulic system. Many
factories have compresses air available and one large compressor
pump can serve several robots
2. Small amount of air leakage is ok, but in a hydraulic system it will
require prompt attention
3. The compressibility of air can also be an advantage in some
applications. Think about a set of automatic doors which are operated
pneumatically. If a person is caught in the doors they will not be
crushed.
4. A pressure relief valve can be incorporated to release pressure when a
force is exceeded, for example the gripper of a robot will incorporate a
relief value to ensure it does not damage itself or what it is gripping
5. Pneumatic devices are faster to respond compared to a hydraulic
system as air is lighter than fluid.
A pneumatic system has its downfalls and the main one is that it can
produce the enormous forces a hydraulic system can. Another is
concerned with the location of the pistons. As air is compressible
heavy loads on the robot arm may cause the pistons to move even
when all the valves on the cylinder are closed. It is for this reason that
pneumatic robots are best suited for pick and place robots.

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 Electric Motors
Not all electric motors are suited for use as
actuators in robots
There are three basic characteristics of a
motor, when combined will determine the
suitability of a motor for a particular job.
The 3 characteristics are power, torque
and speed. Each of these characteristics
are interdependent, that means that you
can not alter one without affecting the
others.
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 Electric Motors
Two types of power: electrical and mechanical, both are
measured in watts.
Torque is how strong a motor is or how much turning force
it is able to produce and is measured in newton-metres.
The speed is measured in revolutions per minute and is
rotation of the motor
There are 3 different types of motors
1. AC motor which operates by alternating current electricity
2. DC motor which operates by direct current electricity
3. Stepper motors which operates by pulses of electricity
Any type of electric motor could be used for a robot as
long as it is possible to electronically control the speed
and power so that it behaves the way we want.
DC motors and Stepper motors are commonly used in
robotics

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 End Effectors

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 What is an end effector?
An end effector is the device that is at the
end of a robotic arm.
There are two main types of end effectors:
Grippers and tools.
We can think of an end effector like a
human hand. Even though a human hand
is very versatile, an end effector has one
great advantage that humans do not have
and that is the interchangablility of end
effectors. If the end effector is not suitable
than it can be changed unlike the human
hand.

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 Types of Grippers

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 Grippers
Grippers are devices which can be used for
holding or gripping an object.
They include what you might call mechanical
hands and also anything like hooks, magnets and
suction devices which can be used for holding or
gripping.
Grippers take advantage of point-to-point control
(exact path that the robot takes between what it
is picking up and where it is placing it.
Grippers should be designed so that it requires
the minimum amount of manoeuvring in order to
grip the work piece

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 Types of Grippers
There are four main categories which makes use of a
gripper
1. No gripping in this situation the workpiece is held in a jig
(a specially designed purpose built holder) and the robot
performs an activity on it. Jobs which use no gripping can
include spot welding, flame cutting and drilling
2. Coarse gripping in this case the robot holds the workpiece
but the gripping does not have to be precise. Jobs which
use coarse gripping include handling and dipping castings,
unloading furnaces, stacking boxes or sacks
3. Precise gripping A robot holds the workpiece which
requires accurate positioning for example unloading and
loading machine tools
4. Assembly the robot is required to assemble parts which
requires accurate positioning and some form of sensory
feedback to enable the robot to monitor and correct its
movements.

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 Mechanical Grippers
We can think of a mechanical gripper as a robot hand. A basic robot hand will
have only two or three fingers
A mechanical hand that wraps around an object will rely on friction in order to
secure the object it is holding.
Friction between the gripper and the object will depend on two things, First is
the type of surface whether it be metal on metal, rubber on metal, smooth
surfaces or rough surfaces and the second is the force which is pressing the
surfaces together.
Mechanical grippers are often fitted with some type of pad usually made from
polyurethane as this provides greater friction. Pads are less likely to damage
the workpiece. Pads are also used so to have a better grip as the
polyurethane will make contact with all parts of the surface when the gripper
is closed
Mechanical grippers can be designed and made for specific purposes and
adjusted according to the size of the object. They can also have dual
grippers. We are all familiar with the saying two hands are better than one
and robots benefit from having dual grippers as they can increase
productivity, be used with machines that have two work stations where one
robot can load two parts in a single operation, operations in which the size of
objects or part change due to the machining processes and where the cycle
time of the robot is too slow to keep up with the production of other
machines.

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 Suction Grippers
There are two types of suction grippers:
1. Devices operated by a vacuum the vacuum may be
provided by a vacuum pump or by compressed air
2. Devices with a flexible suction cup this cup presses
on the workpiece. Compressed air is blown into the
suction cup to release the workpiece. The advantage
of the suction cup is that if there is a power failure it
will still work as the workpiece will not fall down. The
disadvantage of the suction cup is that they only work
on clean, smooth surfaces.
There are many more advantages for using a suction
cup rather than a mechanical grip including: there is
no danger of crushing fragile objects, the exact shape
and size does not matter and the suction cup does not
have to be precisely positioned on the object
The downfalls of suction cups as an end effector
include: the robot system must include a form of
pump for air and the level of noise can cause
annoyance in some circumstances

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 Magnetic Grippers
Magnetic grippers obviously only work on magnetic objects and
therefore are limited in working with certain metals.
For maximum effect the magnet needs to have complete contact
with the surface of the metal to be gripped. Any air gaps will
reduce the strength of the magnetic force, therefore flat sheets of
metal are best suited to magnetic grippers.
If the magnet is strong enough, a magnetic gripper can pick up
an irregular shaped object. In some cases the shape of the
magnet matches the shape of the object
A disadvantage of using magnetic grippers is the temperature.
Permanent magnets tend to become demagnetized when heated
and so there is the danger that prolonged contact with a hot
workpiece will weaken them to the point where they can no
longer be used. The effect of heat will depend on the time the
magnet spends in contact with the hot part. Most magnetic
materials are relatively unaffected by temperatures up to around
100 degrees.
Electromagnets can be used instead and are operated by a DC
electric current and lose nearly all of their magnetism when the
power is turned off.
Permanent magnets are also used in situations where there is an
explosive atmosphere and sparks from electrical equipment
would cause a hazard

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 Hooks and Scoops
Hooks and scoops are the simplest type of
end effectors that can be classes as
grippers.
A scoop or ladle is commonly used to
scoop up molten metal and transfer it to
the mould
A hook may be all that is needed to lift a
part especially if precise positioning in not
required and if it is only to be dipped into a
liquid.

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 Tools
Tools are devices which robots use to perform
operations on an object, for example, drills, paint
sprays, grinders, welding torches and any other tool
which get a specific job done.
Tools take advantage of continuous path control (the
path the end effector takes needs to careful, steady
and continuously controlled at every moment)
If we think of a spray gun and if it moves to quickly
then the paint will be too thin on the other hand if it
moves to slowly the paint will be too thick or in
blobs.
Any tool required can be fitted to the end of the
robotic arm and can be programmed to select and
change tools without human intervention

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 Types of Tools
A common tool used as an end effector is
the welding tool. Welding is the process of
joining two pieces of metal by melting
them at the join and there are 3 main
welding tools: a welding torch, spot
welding gun and a stud welding tool
Other common tools are paints praying,
deburring tools, pneumatic tools such as a
nut runner to tighten nuts.

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 Citations
Robotics: Therory and Industrial
Applications,
mrjob.mathsclass.net

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