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Penetrant T s t in g .
esting.
Pa rt icle Te
g ne ti c
Ma
Ultrasonic T es t in g *
esting. p h ic T
d io gr a
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Procedure
A probe is then applied with the correct angle for the weld
preparation and sound waves are transmitted*
CRT display
Signal rebounded
from Lack of fusion
Advantages Disadvantages
Completed repair*
NDT confirmation of successful repair:
After the excavation has been filled the weldment should
then be undergo a complete retest using NDT to ensure
no further defects have been introduced by the repair.
NDT may also need to be further applied after any
additional post weld heat treatment has been carried out*
Residual welding stresses are defined as those stresses that
remain inside a material after welding has been carried out
Tensile Tensile
Compressive
*
We can say that expansion/contraction has three directions.
Transverse
Plan View
Weld of plate
Longitudinal
End View
of plate
Short transverse
One effect of welding related stresses is distortion
Distortion is the movement of material in one area caused by
expansion and contraction, and local elastic/plastic movement
that misshapes the component*
Longitudinal
distortion
Angular i s t o r ti o n *
D
The volume of weld metal in a joint will also effect the
amount of local expansion and contraction
Hence the more volume of weld metal then the overall
amount of distortion will be higher*
Many methods are used to control the effects of distortion.
Perhaps the best of these is to to pre set the materials to allow
distortion to bring it to its final shape. This method is called
offsetting, or pre-setting*
a) Practical
b) Practical
c) Impractical*
Other forms of distortion control stop the movement of material
from occurring by using such methods as clamping, jigging,
strong backs, and tacking etc*
These methods will reduce the distortion, but will also amass
the maximum amount of residual stresses to exist*
1) Heating
2) Soaking
3) Cooling
Temp
2
1 3
Time
Annealing: Used to make metals soft and ductile
For steels, the component is heated above its UCT, or
upper critical temperature, soaked for 1 hour/25mm of
thickness and left in the furnace to cool
Produces a coarse grain structure & low toughness*
Force/Stress required to
induce plastic strain*
Stress
Y
Strain
By heating the steel, the yield point is suppressed/reduced relieving
residual stresses as plastic strain at a much lower level of stress*
Pre-Heating: Used mainly on steels to retard the cooling
rate of a hardenable steel and reduce the
hardening effect (Martensite formation)
Is also used to help diffusion of Hydrogen
from the HAZ of hardenable steels to avoid
hydrogen cracking. Typically < 350 C
Is also used to produce a more uniform rate
of cooling, and control distortion, or effects
of high contractional strains*
*
Name Pictorial view Uses
The Kerf
50mm
Flutes
MMA electrodes are specially produced for cutting and gouging.
Oxy/Arc and Arc/Air are arc cutting process that produce lots of
fume and arc air produce a high noise level. All these processes
require good extraction, and ear protection is vital for arc/air
Both oxy arc and arc air use special types of electrodes and gas
supplies, which will be described by the course lecturer*
Safety is the responsibility everyone.
As respected officers, it is the duty of all welding inspectors
to ensure that safe working practices are strictly followed.
Alpha iron
This structure occurs below 723 C and is
body centred, or BCC in structure
It can only dissolve up to 0.02% Carbon
Gamma iron
This structure occurs above the UCT in
Plain Carbon Steels and is FCC in structure.
It can dissolve up 2.06% Carbon
*
Compressed representation could appear like this
Solubility of Carbon in BCC & FCC phases of steels*
Occurs when:
Hydrogen is above 15 ml/100 gm weld metal
Hardness is above 350 VPN
Stress is greater than 0.5 of the yield stress
Temperature is below 300 C*
Cellulosic electrodes produce
hydrogen as a shielding gas Hydrogen absorbed in a
long, or unstable arc
H2 H2
Hardness
Tensile Strength
Ductility
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 % Carbon
H2 HAZ Cracks Transverse Weld
in Alloy steels* Cracks in HSLA Steels*
Low ductility weld metal
Occurs when:
Liquid iron sulphides are formed around solidifying
grains. High contractional strains are present
High dilution processes are being used.
There is a high carbon content in the
weld metal*
1) The first steps in eliminating this problem would be to
choose a low dilution process, and change the joint design*
2) Grind and seal in any lamination and avoid further dilution*
3) Add Manganese to the electrode to form spherical Mn/S
which form between the grain and maintain grain cohesion*
4) As carbon increases the Mn/S ratio required increases
exponentially and is a major factor. Carbon content % should
be a minimised by careful control in electrode and dilution*
5) Limit the heat input, hence low contraction, & minimise
restraint*
Liquid Iron Sulphide films
Solidification crack
Contractional strain
Add Manganese to weld metal *
Spherical Mn Sulphide balls
form between solidified grains
Contractional strain
Crack type: Lamellar tearing
Location: Below weld HAZ
Steel types: High sulphur & phosphorous steels
Microstructure: Lamination & Segregation*
Occurs when:
High contractional strains are through the short
transverse direction. There is a high sulfur content in the
base metal.
There is low through thickness ductility in the base metal.
There is high restraint on the work*
Restraint
Lamellar tear
High contractional strains
Plate to be tested*
Full fusion compound
Through thickness
welded cruciform joint*
tensile test*
1) Avoid restraint*
Forged T Piece
Crack type: Inter-granular corrosion
Location: Weld HAZ. (longitudinal)
Steel types: Stainless steels
Microstructure: Sensitised grain boundaries*
Occurs when:
An area in the HAZ has been sensitised by the formation
of chromium carbides. This area is in the form of a line
running parallel to and on both sides of the weld.
This depletion of chromium will leave the effected grains
low in chromium oxide which is what produces the
corrosion resisting effect of stainless steels.
If left untreated corrosion and failure will be rapid*
During the welding of stainless steels, a small grain area in the
HAZ, parallel to the weld will form chromium carbide at the
grain boundaries. This depletes this grain of the corrosion
resisting chrome oxide
We say that the steel has become Sensitised or has become
sensitive to corrosion*
1) Use Stabilised Stainless Steels*