BIO

LAB
THE
ULTIMATE LAB
EXPERIENCE

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LAB
Foreword
Backward backward we go from the first weeks of June until the
end of September we have labored long and hard from what seemed
like the hardest and yet turned out to be the most fun class that
weve had this semester: 31 meetings of grueling and formalin-filled
activities and we are still here ready to face yet another semester
of sleepless nights. But before we finally move on to yet another step,
we want to take you on this journey to OMTuazonlabs Ultimate Lab
Experience.

This intearactive cd will be a window to what lab-life is like. It will

showcase pictures and notes, plus additional information that will
help you get through lab and hopefully get the 1.0s we are all
dreaming of (wishful thinking? .. Nah!). So sit back, relax and let the
TFQvw bibo kids take you through... okiefinokee?!
TFQvw
BIO
LAB Makers of the Ultimate Lab Experience
 Table of Contents: Botany

I. Microscopy
II. The Plant Cell
III. The Plasma Membrane
IV. Plant and Water
Relations
V. Photosynthesis
VI. Mitosis
VII. Histology
VIII. The Root
IX. The Stem
X. The Leaf
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 Table of Contents: Zoology
VII. Musculature
I. Types of Tissues
VIII. General Divisions
II. Anatomy of Frog of Musculature
Organs
IX. Motion and
III. Animal Forms Locomotion
IV. External Anatomy X. Digestive System
of Frogs
XI. Respiratory
V. Skeletal System System
VI. Frog Skeletal XII. Circulatory System
System
XIII. Nervous System
VII. The Pectoral and Sensory
Girdle, Sternum Organs
and Forelimb
XIV. Acknowledgement
VIII. Pelvic Girdle s
and Hindlimb
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 Microscope
enables one to
study objects
too small to be
seen and
examined by
the naked eye

Optical instrument consisting mainly of a system of

specially ground lenses that gives sharp, distinct and
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BIO
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THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
 Parts of a Compound
PARTS
Microscope
FUNCTIONS
Ocular/ eyepiece Where you look through in a
microscope, magnifies specimen

Course adjustment Lowers or raises the body tube of

the microscope

Body tube Holds the revolving nosepiece and

ocular

Revolving nosepiece Allows changing of magnification

from high power to low power and
vice versa

Fine adjustment Adjusts the focus of the lens for

sharper and clearer image
High power objective Lens with high magnifying power
(43x)
(HPO)
Low power objective Lens with relatively low magnifying
power (10x)
LAB (LPO)
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 PARTS FUNCTIONS
Opening/ aperture Allows light coming from the
condenser to reach specimen
Stage clip Keeps glass slide in place

platform stage Where the glass slide is placed

Condenser Focuses the light from the mirror

directly to the specimen
Iris diaphragm Regulates the amount of light
passing through the specimen
Pillar Connects the arm and base of the
microscope
Mirror Reflects light through the
specimen
Base Supports whole microscope
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 *additional notes
The movement of the image in the field of view is
opposite the movement of the actual slide.

The light is refracted as it passes through the

body tube.

When shifting from LPO to HPO, the position of

the specimen changes not its size.

There is a decrease in area of specimen as seen

in the field of view when shifting from LPO to HPO
because the image being magnified appears
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larger but the size of the field of vision remains
 The Dissecting Microscope

Consists of a single lens which provides a large

and clear field.

Gives a magnification of 6x to 20x and also an

erect image.

Convenient for the study of large or thick

specimens, thus it is useful in examining small
organisms and parts of large organisms

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 Calibration of the
Eyepiece Micrometer

It is necessary to calibrate the scale with each

combination of objective and eyepiece
because the length set for each scale may
vary and the apparent length depends on the
magnification

Stage Micrometer
slide provided with a graduated scale of known
values
a celluloid ruler maybe used for magnification
instead if stage micrometer is unavailable
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 Magnification
Number of times an object is enlarged by a lens
system or enlarged or reduced in the drawing or
illustration

LINEAR MAGNIFICATION
The ocular further magnifies the image formed by
the objective so that the image seen by the eye
has a magnification equal to the product of the
magnifications of the two lens system (eyepiece
and objectives) size of drawing
____________
Magnification =
size of object

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 THE PLANT CELL

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Anatomy of a Plant Cell

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 Distinct Structures of a Plant
Cell
1. The Cell Wall
uniform in thickness
maintains cells
shape
Plasmodesmata
narrow canals between
cell walls that act as
bridge; made of
pectin;
when fruits ripen,
plasmodesma is
broken down by the
enzyme pectinase
primary and
secondary cell walls:
Some cells have
secondary cell walls
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made of lignin which
 2. Chlorophyll and Other
Pigments
Pigment-containing
structures:
Cloroplasts
A. Plastids
Chloroplastids: contain
the pigment chloropyhll
(green)
Chromoplastids: contain
the pigment xantophyll
(yellow) and/or
carotene (orange) Cyclosis: streaming protoplast
B. Vacoules Rate of Cyclosis = dist. traveled by
chloroplastid (mm) / time (min)
pigment vacoules
contain the pigment
anthocyanin (violet)
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 3. Crystal: Waste Deposits
of Plants
Chemical
Type Plants
Component
Styloids Calcium oxalate Sanseviera
zeylonica
Prismatic Calcium oxalate Begonia sp.
Raphides Calcium oxalate Begonia sp.
Druse/Rosette Calcium oxalate Dieffenbachia
Cystolith (squares) Calcium carbonate Ficus elastica
Cystolith (gourd-like) Calcium carbonate Pilea microphylla

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 Cystolith

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THE PLASMA MEMBRANE

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 Structure

Phospolipid
bilayer

The Fluid Mosaic Model

Consists essentially of a sea of lipid molecules with randomly dispersed
protein molecules that float on either or both sides of the membrane
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 Characteristics
Hydrophobic
does not generally mix with H2O
(e.g. Amoeba can remain intact in aquatic medium)

Selective permeability
Most substance cannot pass through the lipid bilayer
Specific transport proteins are the ones that allow certain
substances to enter/move around the membrane

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 Characteristics
Permeability also depends on these processes:

Diffusion:
spontaneous tendency of a substance to move down its concentration gradient
from a more concentrated to a less concentrated area

Osmosis:
special case of diffusion of water molecules through a differentially permeable
membrane (e.g. in red blood cells); water will diffuse from the less
concentrated to the more concentrated solution. Example:

In a hypotonic solution, the RBC bursts (hemolysis)

In an isotonic solution (0.9% NaCl), the RBC is normal
In a hypertonic solution, the RBC shrivels (crenation)

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 Active Transport
energy-consuming process to move substance
from a region of lower concentration to that of a
higher concentration

Hemolysis of Red Blood Cells

in a hypotonic solution

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 PLANT AND WATER
RELATIONS

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 WATER

Major component of cells and tissues

Medium of transport of materials and chemical

reactions

Confers turgidity to plat structure

Movement within plant is primarily determined

by gradients in water potential

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 DIFFUSION
movement of molecules (solutes) from area
of high concentration to area of low
concentration
the higher the temperature the faster the
rate of diffusion
ex. Steamed cubes: faster rate of spread of
color than unsteamed cubes
OSMOSIS
movement of water is from hypotonic (high
water potential) to hypertonic (low water
potential) condition
existence of a semi-permeable membrane
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 PLASMOLYSIS

shrinkage of cytoplasm due to water loss when

cell is placed in a hypertonic environment
Ex. High concentration of sugar in the
environment causes water to move out of the
cell, therefore causing plasmolysis; guard cells
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become flaccid with decrease in pore size
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS

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 The main function of leaves is
PHOTOSYNTHESIS

the manufacture of sugar through the

participation of carbon dioxide and water
in the chloroplast with the use of light
energy and release of oxygen.

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 Factors in Photosynthesis
A.Chlorophyll

Figure 1- Chlorophyll Figure

Figure 22 Starch
Starch Presence
Presence
distribution

Figure
Figure 22 Black/
Black/ gray
gray part
part indicates
indicates
Figure 1- The green part photosynthetic
photosynthetic region
region while
while white
white
indicates chlorophyll distribution portions
portions shows
shows non-photosynthetic
non-photosynthetic
while the non-green part region
region
indicates lack of chlorophyll

Conclusion: Only green part of leaves can undergo

photosynthesis and thus contains starch.

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 B. Light

To ensure that the plant completely consumes all

its starch, place it in the dark for 48-72 hours.
Also, cover leaves with carbon paper or aluminum
foil to prevent light from getting in contact with
the leaves.
Covered leaves show zero starch while uncovered
leaves reveal starch content.
Plants can carry out photosynthesis under natural
and/or artificial light.
Plants cannot carry out photosynthesis without
any light presence.
The stronger the light intensity, the faster the gas
evolution occurs and the faster photosynthesis
happens.
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 C. Carbon Dioxide
Use phenol red to indicate pH.
At low pH, phenol red changes to
yellow.
To make water solution acidic, blow
into the solution.
When a shoot of hydrilla is placed in
an acidic solution, carbon dioxide is
absorbed hence solution will turn red
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again.
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 PIGMENT SEPARATION by
LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY
Mobile phase- solvent made of 95
parts petroleum ether and 5 parts
acetone
Stationary phase- filter paper
Pigment representations by colors
yellow xanthophyll
dark and light green chlorophyll
orange carotene
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 Expected Results

The fastest and farthest or topmost

traveling color in the strip is yellow.
Orange is the slowest and bottom
color.
The middle colors include light green
and below it, dark green.

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 MITOSIS

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 MITOSIS
The transmission of same number and kinds of
chromosomes from one cell generation to the next

Result in the increase in number of cells because

in this process the cell divides

INTERPHASE

Important because it is the stage in the cell cycle

when the cell grows and the cell is replicated

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 WHITEFISH MITOSIS
Metaphase
Prophase

Telophase Interphase II

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 HISTOLOGY

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 Meristems
3 Distinguishing Features
- Perpetually embryonic divide
always
- Undifferentiated
- Isodiametric

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 Vascular Cambium
Tissue found between the xylem and
phloem

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 Trichomes
Outgrowths of the epidermis
It is used for protection from
predators and parasites. Some also
prevent excessive water loss

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 a. Scale
b. Stellate
c. Branching
d. Glandular
e. T-shaped
f. Glandular
g. Stinging
h. Peltate

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 Actual Pictures of
Trichomes

glandular

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 Actual Pictures of
Trichomes

bristle

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 Actual Pictures of
Trichomes
scale

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 Actual Pictures of
Trichomes
stellate

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 Actual Pictures of
Trichomes

stinging

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 Tracheary Elements
principal water conducting elements of the xylem,
mostly vessel members and tracheids.
Note: In primary xylem the tracheary elements
may have only annular, spiral or reticulate
thickenings and no pits.

BIO Annular Pitted Scalariform

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 helical or spiral

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 Sieve Tubes vs. Companion
Cells
Sieve tubes
- vertically elongated cylindrical cells
- at maturity, they lose their nucleus
- wide diameter
Companion Cell
- Shorter, narrower and vertically elongated
- Its nucleus is used by the sieve tubes to
be able to conduct food

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 THE ROOT

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 Contents

1. Functions of Roots
2. Types of Root Systems
3. Zones of a Root (longitudinal section)
4. Parts of a Root (cross section)
5. Root Hair vs. Branch Root
6. Monocot Root vs. Dicot Root
7. Specialized Functions of Roots
8. Examples of Modified Roots
9. Cross Section of an Enlarged Root
10. Cross Section of an Aerial Orchid

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 Functions of Roots

Roots anchor the plant in the soil.

Roots absorb water and dissolved nutrients needed

for normal growth, development, photosynthesis,
and reproduction.

In some plants, roots have become adapted for

specialized functions such as storage, reproduction,
and photosynthesis.

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 Two Types of Root Systems
Taproots
are large and fleshy in
appearance
grow deep into the
ground to search for food
are able to store food,
which is particularly
necessary for perennial
plants during periods of
dormancy
are mostly found in
plants with two seed-
leaves (dicots)

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 Root Systems
Fibrous roots
lie close to the surface of the
soil
collect precipitation before it
sinks deep into the ground
can often be found growing
side by side with taproots: the
two types of root combine
efforts to maximize efficiency
are mostly found in plants
with one seed-leaf
(monocots)

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 Zones of a Root
1. Root cap
protects the root from
mechanical injury
cells lasts less than a week,
then these die

2. Region of Cell Division

Apical meristem
cells divide once or twice per
day
The transitional meristems
arise from the tips of roots
and shoots.
the protoderm (from the
epidermis)
the ground meristem (from
the ground tissue)
BIO the procambium (from the
LAB primary phloem and xylem)
 Zones of a Root
3. Region of
Elongation
cells become longer
and wider

4. Region of
Maturation or
Differentiation
root hairs develop from
epidermal cells
increase the surface
area for water
absorption
cuticle exists on root
but not on root hairs
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 Parts of a Root
A. Epidermis
outermost layer of cells forming the initial covering on a root
B. Cortex
ground tissue that surrounds the vascular cylinder or stele
C. Endodermis with Casparian strip
regulates the flow of water and dissolved substances
D. Primary xylem
water-conducting tissue found in the vascular cylinder or stele
E. Primary phloem
food-conducting tissue found in the vascular cylinder or stele
F. Stele
cental vascular cylinder where xylem and phloem are located
G. Pith
core of the central vascular cylinder of monocot roots

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 Monocot Root (cross section)

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 Dicot Root (cross section)

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 The Monocot Root
Legend:
ep
epidermis
c cortex
en
en endodermis
endodermis
xx xylem
xylem (in
(in a
circle
circle outside
outside
the
the pith,
pith, not
not in
in
the
the middle
middle asas in
in
aa dicot
dicot root)
root)
ph
ph phloem
phloem (toward
(toward
the
the outside
outside ofof
xylem)
xylem)
pt
pt pith
pith (in
(in the
the
center
center ofof the
the
Corn, Zea mays root)
root)
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 The Dicot Root

Legend:
e -epidermis
c -cortex
vb - vascular bundle
(with xylem and
phloem)

Ranunculus root

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 The Dicot Root, Up Close
Legend:
e - endodermis, a
protective inner
layer
x - xylem (large
thick walled red
cells; dead at
maturity)
ph phloem (dense
Ranunculus root cells found
between clumps
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of xylem)
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 Root Hair vs. Branch Root

Root Hair
tiny projection

growing just
behind root tips of
plants

increases surface
area for
absorption water
and minerals
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 Root Hair and Lateral Root
Lateral Root
root from the
outermost
layer of the
pericycle of a
root

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 Monocot Root vs. Dicot Root
Part Monocot Root Dicot Root
Epidermis present present
Exodermis present absent
Cortex present present
Endodermis present present
Pericycle present present
Xylem present present
Vascular Cambium absent present
Phloem present present
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 Specialized Functions of Roots
Plant Specialized Modification Function(s)
Part
camote lateral root enlarged storage
radish primary root enlarged storage
turnip primary root enlarged storage
kataka-taka adventitious meristematic reproduction
root
orchid adventitious aerial photosynthesis
root
pandan roots aerial/prop support
roots
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balete roots butress support
 Examples of Modified Roots

Radish Kataka-taka

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Cross Section of an Enlarged Root
Core to Crust
(Inner to Outer)
xylem
vascular
cambium
phloem
cortex
epidermis

Camote
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Aerial Orchid Root vs. Corn
Root
Velamen
Aerial Orchid Root
velamen
(multiseriated
epidermis) present
exoderm present
Corn Root
velamen absent
exoderm absent
epidermis present

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 THE STEM

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 Monocot

General Features
Vascular bundles are scattered throughout
the stem
Has nodes, internodes
Has leaf, leaf sheath
Has leaf axil
Has terminal bud

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 Dicot: Herbaceous

General Features:
Has nodes, internodes
Has leaf, petiole
Has bundle scars, leaf axil
Has axillary bud, terminal bud, and bud scale

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BIO
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Dicot: Woody
General Features:
Has nodes, internodes
Has leaf, petiole
Has leaf scars, bundle scars, leaf axil
Has axillary bud, terminal bud
Has bud scales, lenticels
Has secondary growth or bark

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 Gymnosperm

General Features:
Has secondary growth or bark
Has resin ducts
Has tracheids, fibers
Does not have vessels
Has ray parenchyma, ray tracheids

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 Pine wood (c.s.)

Resin
Xylem duct
ray

Tracheids

Annual
Ring

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 Pine Stem (t.s.)

Xylem Ray

Tracheid

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 Pine Stem (r.s.)

Tracheid

Xylem Ray

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 Lenticel

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 THE LEAF

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 Monocot Leaf
1 layer of
epidermis
In-line stomata
Dorsiventral
mesophyll

Expanded blade
Has midrib
Has bulliform cells

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 Dicot Leaf

1 layer of
epidermis
In-line stomata
Dorsiventral
mesophyll

Expanded blade
Midrib present

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 Gymnosperm Leaf

1 layer of epidermis
Sunken stomata
Lobed mesophyll

Needle-like blade
No midrib
Has resin duct,
secretory cells

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 ZOOLOGY

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 TYPES OF TISSUES

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 Epithelial tissues
Forms the outer coverings and inner
linings of the body surfaces
Has tightly packed cells with very
little intercellular material
For protection, selective absorption,
and secretion

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 Epithelial Groups
covering and lining epithelial membranes
squamous epithelium
cuboidal epithelium
columnar epithelium
ciliated epithelium

glandular epithelium

unicellular glands

multicellular glands
exocrine (with ducts)
endocrine (ductless)

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 Goblet Cell Types of
Epithelium

Cuboidal
Squamous
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 Muscular Tissues
specialized for movement

muscle cells are called muscle fibers

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 Types
1. Nonstriated (smooth) muscles
- found in the visceral organs except the heart
- are involuntary muscles
2. Skeletal muscles
- striated
- muscles that are attached to the bones
- characterized by the presence of dark bands (anistropic or A-
discs) and light bands (isotropic or I-discs)
- has multinucleated condition or syncytium
3. Cardiac or Heart mucles
- striated
- has functional syncytium
- has intecalated discsfibers form an intricate network

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 Smooth
Squamous

Striated

Types of
Muscles
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 Supporting and connective
Tissues
Characterized by the presence of a large amount
of intercellular material and paucity of cells

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 Types:
Loose Connective Tissue
formed by fibrocytes that has ovoid nuclei
intercellular material that is secreted by the connective tissue cells
are composed of amorphous ground substance and connective tissue
fibers

Cartilage
composed of chondrocytes and solid intercellular substance
chondrocytes are located in the lacunae

Bone
composed of osteocytes embedded in a calcified matrix, containing
fine collagen fibers
osteocytes are contained in the lacunae
canaliculi which are tiny canals that serve as passage way of
materials from blood vessels to the osteocytes
the Haversian canal is where the bone matrix is laid down in rings
called lamellae; interconnected by means of Volkmanns canal

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 Cartilage

Ligament

Types of
Connective
Tissue
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 Vascular (blood) Tissues
Made up of liquid
component, plasma
and blood

Also considered as
belonging to the
connective tissues
group

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 Types:
1. Erythrocytes/Red blood corpuscles
contains hemoglobin, responsible for oxygen
Transport
2. Leucocytes/White blood corpuscles
Polymorphonuclear
leucocytes/granulocytes/polymorphs

A. Neutrophils
nuclei is made up of 2 to 5 or more thin lobes
connected by slender chromatin thread
granules are fine and does not stain well at neutral
pH
B. Eosinophils
nuclei are made up of 2 oval lobes linked by thread
like chromatin
granules are coarse and stain pinkish red with acid
stains

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 Types:
C. Basophils
nuclei stain very faintly
has coarse cytoplasmic granules that
stain blue with basic dye

4. Lymphocytes
nuclei are large, somewhat spherical; there is only
narrow rim of cytoplasm around the nucleus

5. Monocytes
nuclei vary from slightly indented ovals to
horseshoe-shaped structures
have larger amounts of cytoplasm than
lymphocytes

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 Types of
Vascular
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Frog Blood Tissue
 Nervous Tissues
nerve cell is called neuron
cytoplasm is drawn out into long nerve fibers,
the dendrites and the axon
dendrites carry impulse toward the cell body
axon carries impulse away from the cell body
nerve is a bundle of nerve fibers bound by
connective tissues
epineurium is the loose connective tissue
covering
inside are the fascicles or nerve bundles
each fascicle is covered by a perineurium a
dense connective tissue
individual nerve bundle are enclosed in the
endoneurium
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BIO
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 ANATOMY OF FROG
ORGANS

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 Layers:
Skin
1. Epidermis
made up of epithelial tissue
Stratum corneum
outermost layer of the epidermis
made up of squamous epithelia
Stratum germinativum
has rows of spherical cells and a deeper layer of columnar cells, which
give rise to new cells
2. Dermis/Corlum
Stratum spongiosum/Stratum laxum
a layer of connective tissue
contains chromatophores and cutaneous glands
chromatophores are cells containing pigment granules
Stratum compactum
made of tightly packed horizontal strands of connective tissues with
alternating vertical connective tissue strands

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 Skin

Frog Skin

Skin
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LAB Cutaneous Gland
 Liver
Parts:

1. Liver cells
polygonal in cross section; have darkly stained spherical nuclei
2. Pigment granules
brown in color; scattered irregularly over the liver
3. Veins and Arteries
veins are thin-walled and larger than thick walled arteries
4. Bile ducts
lined with cuboidal epithelium
5. Arterioles and Venules
may be found together with bile ducts
6. Sinusoid
endothelial tubes occurring in-between liver cells; appears like
spaces between liver cells

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 Liver
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(Bile Duct Area)
 Intestines
Appears round in
cross-section
Has circular folds,
valves of Kerkring,
in the inner wall

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 Layer:
Tunica mucosa
lines cavity of lumen
made up of simple columnar epithelial cells and
goblet cells

Tunica submucosa
muscular coat
made up of two layers of muscles
stratum circulare thick inner circular layer
stratum longitudinale thin outer longitudinal
layer

Tunica serosa
outermost covering
BIO a thin layer of loose connective tissue covered
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 Stomach
appears round
in cross-
section
inner wall has
large wavy
folds called
rugae

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 Layers:
1. Tunica mucosa
has inner layer of columnar cells and outer layer of loose
connective tissue, the lamina propia
chief cells and parietal cells are found in this layer
2. Muscularis mucosa
lies outer to the lamina propia
has stratum circulare and stratum longitudinale
3. Tela submucosa
contains large blood and lymph vessels
4. Tunica submuscularis
thick and made up of circular layer of smooth muscles
5. Subserosa
narrow layer of connective tissues containing few
longitudinal muscle strands
6. Tunica serosa
made up of loose connective tissue covered with
mesothelium

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 Kidney
Parts:
1. Adrenal gland
mass of epithelial cells in the ventral depression of organ
2. Malpighian bodies
made up of network of capillaries, the glomerulus, with in a
cup-shaped double membrane, the Bowmans capsule
3. Uriniferous tubules
where gumelular filtrate passes through
4. Wolffian duct/Mesonephric duct
where urine passes through going to the urinary bladder
5. Renal portal vein
located at the lateral margin of the kidney

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 Kidney
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Renal Corpuscles
 Spinal Cord
Parts:

Two distinguished regions

1. white matter: made up of loosely arranged nerve fibers
and supporting cells or neuroglia
2. gray matter: made up of cell bodies of neurons and
supporting neuroglia
has 2 dorsal projections called dorsal cornua (dorsal gray
horns)
has 2 ventral projections called ventral cornua (ventral gray
horns)
Central canal
located at the center of the gray matter
line by ependymal cells
Neuroglia (glial cells)
Motor cells
most prominent neurons inspinal cord
concentrated in ventral gray horn
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cylindrical covering of spinal cord
 Spinal Cord
Subdural space
lies beneath the dura mater
Pia mater
closely investing the spinal cord
a thin layer of connective tissues
Dorsal fissure
Ventral fissure
contains ventral spinal artery

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 X- section
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Spinal Cord
 ANIMAL FORMS

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 TYPES
TYPES OF
OF SYMMETRY
SYMMETRY
Universal
- Spherical
Radial
- Arranged in a central axis
Bilateral
- Longitudinal:
divides into the dorsal (back) and
ventral side (front)
-Transverse:
divides into the anterior (head end)
and posterior side (tail end)
- Sagittal: divides into the lateral
sides (left and right)
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 Metamerisms/
Segmentation

Regular repetition of
body parts along the
antero-posterior axis
Divided into
segments,
metameres, or
somites Metamerism
Has external and
internal aspects

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 Regionalization
Having parts of the
body more or less
differentiated into
recognizable zones,
such as the head, trunk
and tail
Cephalization: cephalization
The nervous system
and sense organs tend
to concentrate in the
head
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 Appendages
Antennae

Chephalic appendages
may be in the form of
antennae, tentacles,
lophophores, etc.

May be segmented or
unsegmented

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 EXTERNAL ANATOMY
OF FROGS

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 External anatomy of the frog

Head Tympanum
Snout
Trunk

Anus

External Thigh
Nares Shank
Upper arm
Forearm
Manus
Pes
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 Animal Integuments

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 Animal Integument
Slimy epithelium or Planaria
- simplest form
- allows diffusion of gases.
- In earthworms, the epithelium
secretes a cuticle and allows
diffusion of gases
Mantle (of Mollusks)
- soft integument
- some may be muscular or may
contain hard substances like chitin or
conchiolin
- It secretes a shell

Rigid integument (of Arthropods)

- chitinous
- impregnated with lime or
calcium carbonate
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 SKELETAL SYSTEM

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 EXOSKELETON
Corals calcareous
Mollusks shells calcareous: made of calcium
carbonate single piece (univalve) or two piece
(bivalve)
Crustaceans and Insects chitinous
Turtle Shells Dorsal Carapace and Ventral
Plastron
Fishes Bony Scales
Snakes, Lizards, Crocodiles Horny shields form a
continuous mat
Birds Plumage (feathers)
Mammals Pelage (covering of hairs)
Cattle, Buffalos True Horns; hollow
Dear Antlers; bony, shed periodically
Lizards, birds, cats, dogs claws
Monkeys, apes, man nails
BIO
LAB Horses, cattles hooves
 Bivalve Horny Shields

SHELL

Calcareous
Univalve

Pelage

Plumage Carapace

BIO
Plastron
LAB
 Claws

Antlers

Bony Scales

Hoof

Nails True Horns

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 ENDOSKELETON
Squid and Cuttlefish
Pen
Sea Urchin
Test or Corona:
calcareous; composed of Test
dermal plates;
covered by integument Vertebrate Endoskeletal System

Bones principal elements of

endoskeletons
Cartillage or gristle portions
which require flexibility
Ligaments fibrous structures
that bind bones together
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 FROG SKELETAL
SYSTSEM

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 General Overview
1.Skull
2. Atlas (C1)
3. Abdominal vertebrae
4. Sacral vertebra
5. Urostyle
6. Suprascapula
7. Ilium
8. Ischium
9. Humerus
10. Radio-ulna
11. Carpals
12. Metacarpals
13. Phalanges
14. Femur
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 General Regions of the Skull
and the Lower Jaw
Cranium hollow middle portion

Olfactory capsules anterior to the cranium

Otic capsules posterior to the cranium; lodges the inner ear

Orbit on each side of the cranium;

houses the eyeball
Occipital Region Posterior end of the skull
Foramen Magnum large hole at the center; where the
spinal cord passes through
Occipital Condyles articulated with the 1st vertebra;
ventrolateral to the foramen magnum

Maxillary arch bordering the orbit laterally

Premaxillary process adjoins the paired triangular bones
of the cranium

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 Olfactory Capsule

Premaxillary
Process
Orbit
Otic Capsule

Occipital Region
Occipital Condyle

Foramen Magnum

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 Frog Vertebrate
(1) Atlas articulated with the occipital
condyles; cervical vertebra
(2) (2-8) Typical Vertebra
()centrum body of the vertebra; concave
infront; convex behind
()neural arch dorsal to the centrum,
forming a canal
()neural canal contains the spinal cord
()neural spine posteriorly directed
()transverse processes extend laterally and
help support the body wall
()zygapophyses pre-zygapophyses
(hidden), post-zygapophyses (covers
the pre)
(9) sacral
BIO
LAB (10) urostyle
THE PECTORAL GIRDLE,
STERNUM AND FORELIMB

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 Pectoral Girdle
Suprascapula
most dorsal, flat trapezoidal and cartilaginous
Scapula
articulating the suprascapula; smooth concavity on its
proximal end
Glenoid fosa
where the upper arm bone fits
Fenestra
articulate with the scapula on its proximal end
Clavicle
anterior to the fenestra; where an inverted y-shaped bone
belonging to the sternum rests
Coracoid
posterior to the fenestra and shaped like the scapula;
contributes also to the glenoid fossa
Epicoracoid cartilages
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joins the two halves
 Sternum
Set of bones and cartilages
lying in the mid-ventral axis
Two positions: anterior and
posterior to the pectoral girdle

Episternum
flat, rounded cartilage
Omosternum
inverted y-shaped bone, with
its two arms resting on the
clavicle
Mesosternum
bone wedged between the
coracoids in its anterior end
Xiphisternum
BIO
LAB cartilage lying posterior to
 Forelimb

Phalanges
Metacarpals
Carpals
Radio-ulna
Humerus

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 PELVIC GIRDLE AND HINDLIMB

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 Pelvic Girdle
Strengthens the posterior region of the
body and provides support to the hind
limbs
Each half is called an os innominatum
(innominate bone)
Acetabulum cup-shaped depression;
where the proximal end of the thigh
bone fits; formed by the convergence of
the raised edges of the bones
comprising the girdle
Ilium forms the anterior border of
the acetabulum and articulates with
the lateral processes of the 9th
vertebra
Ischium fan-shaped bone
contributing to the posterior border of
BIO
LAB
the acetabulum and wedged between
 Hindlimb
Femur long bone whose
rounded proximal end
articulates with the
acetabulum

Tibio-fibula (thigh bone)

slightly longer bone distal to
the femur

Tarsals (ankle bones)

consisting of a proximal row of
two elongate bones and a
distal row of two or three short
bones

Metatarsals (sole bones) a

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row of five elongate bones
 MUSCULATURE

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 Muscle
Muscles are contractive
tissue which are
responsible in general
for motion and
locomotion

2 Types of Muscles:
Skeletal Muscle
1. Skeletal
- attached to
skeletons; comprising
the bulk of the body
2. Visceral
- those that form part
of the wall of internal Smooth Muscle
BIO
organs
LAB
 Characteristics
Skeletal muscles are bound by a connective tissue
called fascia, these continue to the ends of the
muscles as tendons.

The middle fleshy part of the muscle is called the

belly.

Point of attachment, more or less fixed, is called the

origin.

Point of insertion, the relatively movable end.

When there is more than one point of origin, it is

called the head.
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 GENERAL DIVISIONS OF
MUSCULATURE

BIO
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BIO
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BIO
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 MOTION AND
LOCOMOTION

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 Mode of Locomotion
In animals with segmented appendages the
extensive well-differentiated musculature
works together with a rigid skeleton to produce
locomotion.

Earthworms absence of rigid skeleton, the

primitive musculature, works together with
coelomic fluid which acts as hydrostatic
skeleton

Flatworms interstitial fluid that fill the spaces

between parenchymatous cells functions also
as a hydrostatic skeleton

Mode of locomotion of worms are often slow

BIO
LAB and inefficient compared with animals with
 Locomotion of Planaria
illustrate the origin of the dynamic functions
of hydroskeleton
are capable of looping in the manner of
leeches and use pedal locomotory waves,
perfected by land snails and slugs.

Locomotion in Gastropod Mollusks

locomotion is by means of a flattened
muscular foot through pedal locomotory
waves
foot is analogous to the whole body of the
flatworm but while the flatworm body has a
constant volume, the gastropod foot may be
BIO inflated by blood
LAB
 Locomotion in Earthworms

exemplify the highest form of a locomotor

system dependent on a hydrostatic skeleton

contraction of the circular muscles on the

anterior end of the body extends to a
number of segments

contraction of the circular muscles makes

the segments longer and thinner, while
contraction of the longitudinal muscles
shortens the segments in preparation for
next phase of muscle contraction

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 Motion and Locomotion
in the Vertebrates
Demonstration of Muscle Action
Action specific movement produced by the muscle
- for ever action there is a corresponding reaction
Antagonists group of muscles whose actions are
opposite
Synergists those acting in concert

Ex. adductor moves a part towards the axis of the body,

an abductor produces and opposite action, flexor
bends a part, extensor extends a part, levator raises
a part, depressor lowers it, a constrictor closes an
aperture, a dilator opens it

* Indoctorium used to demonstrate muscle action of a

BIO
frog
LAB
 Locomotion in Vertebrates
Undulatory or Swimming
- body is thrown into waves that pass along the animal,
generally from head to tail , brought about by the
contraction of the trunk musculature

Pedal locomotion
- movement is achieved by contraction of limb muscles
- quadruped animals that walks on all four limbs
- biped - when only one pair of limbs is involved
- movements may be in the form of leaping, marching,
running, etc.

True flight
- achieved by birds and bats
- Volplane - flying lemurs and flying squirrels, as in kites
and skydivers

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 Swimming

True Flight

Volplane

Crawling
Bipedal
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 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

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 Introduction
concerned with the function of nutrition which
includes ingestion, digestion, absorption and
egestion
process of digestion involves the physical and
chemical breakdown of food to render it
soluble and ready for reabsorption
tongue and teeth help in mechanical
breakdown of food
chemical digestion occurs with help of
digestive juices containing enzymes secreted
by the digestive glands
secretion of enzymes is basically under the
control of hormones
passage of food along the digestive tract is
BIO
aided by gut motility controlled by nervous
LAB system
 Incomplete Type
when anus is absent, mouth serves for
ingestion of food and egestion of waste
materials

Fasciola or Clonorchis
Parts:
mouth anterior end
oral sucker circular and muscular sucking
disc surrounding the mouth
pharynx short muscle
esophagus short tube from the pharynx

additional for Fasciola

side branches or diverticula of the intestines
BIO
are very prominent and seem to fill the body
LAB
BIO
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 COMPLETE TYPE

mouth and anus are present

may be subdivided into the

digestive tract, the digestive
glands, and the accessory
structures

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BIO
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 Coelom, Peritoneum, and
Mesenteries

Coelom
cavity containg the visceral organs
divided into:
a. small pericardial cavity contains the heart
b. larger pleuro-peritoneal cavity which
contains the rest of the visceral organs

Peritoneum
connective tissue membrane that lines the
coelom
Types:
a. parietal peritoneum lines the body wall
BIO b. visceral peritoneum covers most visceral
LAB
organs
 Coelom, Peritoneum, and
Mesenteries
Mesenteries
two layers of the peritoneum that suspends
viscera from the dorsal body wall
name of organ they suspend

Omentum
double membrane continuous with the
mesenteries that connect the visceral organs with
one another
also named after organ they connect

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 Buccal Cavity
- large cavity exposed upon opening the mouth

Parts:
maxillary teeth in the upper jaw
sticky tongue located at the floor of the cavity
which captures food and passes it on the
esophageal opening
glottis slit-like opening to the respiratory system
and is found at the region between the tongue and
esophageal opening
vocal sacs where pair of slits lead to ; slits are
located lateral to the glottis and near angle of jaw
choanae or internal nares- pair of holes at the roof
of the buccal cavity
vomerine teeth- pair of v-shaped formations at the
root of the mouth
BIO Eustachian tube opening or recess near the angle
LAB
 4

1. Vomerine Teeth 3. Opening to the Eustachian Tube

2. Internal Nares 4. Maxillary Teeth

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 Digestive Tube
1. esophagus
short tube connecting the oral cavity to the
stomach
2. Stomach
bag shaped muscle
Parts of stomach:
a. cardiac end anterior portion continuous
with the esophagus
b. pyloric end posterior portion continuous
with the small intestine
c. greater curvature outer curvature
d. lesser curvature inner curvature
e. rugae lines of the inner wall of the stomach
3. pyloric sphincter
BIO constriction at the junction of the stomach
LAB and the small intestine
 Digestive Tube
4. Small Intestine
- digestive tube that has become the long
coiled structure from the pylorus
- where most chemical digestion and
absorption occurs
Has 2 regions:
a. duodenum bends anteriorly from the
pylorus and runs parallel to the stomach
b. ileum longer and posterior
5. Large Intestine
- where digestive tube enlarges
- further breakdown of undigested material by
bacterial action and the absorption of water
occur here
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 Digestive Tube
6. Cloaca
short narrow tube which opens to the outside
through the anus
- urine and gametes also pass through the cloaca
and anus

Mesenteries found in digestive system

dorsal mesentery digestive tube is suspended
from the dorsal bod
mesogaster mesenteries in the stomach at its
cardiac end
mesentery proper or mesenterium suspends the
ileum
mesorectum suspends rectum

7. Spleen
BIO dark lymphoid organ lying within the fold of the
LAB
mesorectum
BIO
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 Parts of the
Digestive System

3. Spleen
4. Liver
5. Stomach
6. Small Intestine
7. (Large Intestine

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 RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM

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 Types of Respiratory Organs

1. gills
- aquatic animals
2. lungs
evaginations (outpocketings )of
the digestive tube for terrestrial
animals
3. tracheal system
invaginations of the integument
(inpocketings)
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 TYPES OF
RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM

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 AQUATIC RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS
Gills of Fishes
-are delicate comb-like structures
a. Operculum covers the gills
b. Gill chamber part of the pharynx
c. Gill arches bony structures where gills are arched
d. Gill filaments arranged in parallel rows in rich in
blood capillaries, this also gives the dark red color
of the gills in live or fresh specimen
e. Pharyngeal clefts- wide slits between the gill arches
which serve for the passage of water from the
pharynx to the gill chamber

Breathing Movements of Fishes

water is taken in through the mouth and made to
pass through the gills then expelled out of the gill
chamber through the gill aperture
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BIO
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 TERRESTIAL RESPIRATORY
SYSTEMS
Tracheal System of Insects
respiratory organs consists of a
branching system of air tubes
which supplies oxygen directly to
the tissues
Parts
tracheal trunk short segmental
branches that lead outside to
spiracles and in fine branches, the
tracheoles, connected directly to
the tissues
spiracles where exchange of
gases occur
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 TERRESTIAL RESPIRATORY
SYSTEMS
Lung System of Vertebrates

Parts
glottis median slit, posterior to the tongue
which leads to the larynx
arytenoids pair of cartilages on both sides of
the glottis which is covered by mucous
cricod cartilage ring shaped cartilage that
borders arytenoids
vocal cords a pair of elastic, thread-like
bands
lungs pair of spongy sacs where larynx leads
to

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BIO
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 Excretory System

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 Frogs Excretory System
Kidney
flat, ovoid reddish organs lying in a space
retroperitoneal
adrenals maybe observed as the yellowish streaks
on the ventral surface
Cisterna Magna
space between the muscles of the dorsal body wall
and the peritoneum
Mesonephric or Wollfian Duct
thread like tubular structure on the lateral side of
each kidney
continues posteriorly beyond the kidney and enters
the cloaca separately on its dorsal wall
Urinary Bladder
connected to the ventral wall of the cloaca which
BIO serves as storage of urine
LAB
 Parts of the
Excretory System

8. Kidney

9. Urinary Bladder

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 Mammalian Kidney
Kidney substance is easily divisible into two regions:
outer cortex
- contains the microscopic renal corpuscles and
tubules
inner medulla
- contains collecting tubules that open at the renal
papilla

Renal Pelvis
- where renal papilla opens
- expanded beginning in the ureter or metanephric
duct

Metanephric Duct
leads tourinary bladder

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Ureter
BIO
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 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

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 Function of the Circulatory System

Responsible for the transport of gases,

nutrients, metabolic wastes, hormones
and other substances in the different
parts of the body.

It assists in maintaining constancy of

the internal environment (homeostasis)
of the organism

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 OPEN SYSTEM
Heart
Pericardial sinus cavity where the heart lies;
open at the posterior end

Dorsal Diaphragm membrane forming the

ventral wall of the pericardial sinus

Aorta vessel from the anterior end of the

heart, which opens into the sinuses of the head

Composed of a series of chambers

Ostia: paired lateral openings at the posterior

end of each chamber which are guarded by
BIO
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 Path of Blood
Colorless blood from the pericardial sinus
enters each chamber thru these openings.

Blood is kept in circulation by the rhythmic

contraction of the chambers of the heart
from the posterior to the anterior chambers
of the aorta

Blood then permeates into the different parts

of the body and finally returns to the
pericardial sinus through the posterior
opening.

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BIO
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 CLOSED SYSTEM
Blood Vascular System

Composed of:
a. Blood
b. Heart
- pumping action of the
heart creates pressure
that drives - the blood to
the different parts of the
body
c. Arteries
- conveys blood from the
heart to the different
parts of the body
d. Veins
- convey blood back to
the heart
e. Capillaries
BIO - connect arterioles with
LAB the venules
 Lymphatic System
Composed of:
Lymph vessels
Lymph spaces
Lymph circulating fluid

Where is it located?
Dorso-lateral subcutaneous connective tissue
Tissue connecting the skin to the body wall
Dorsal subcutaneous lymph space
space between the skin and the dorsal body wall
where lymph is pumped into veins by lymph hearts
Lymph Hearts
Contractile hearts found between the third vertebra and
the posterior corners of the suprascapula
Anterior Abdominal Vein
underneath the linea alba

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BIO
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 HEART
a. Pericardial cavity
where the heart lies
separated from the pleuroperitoneal cavity
by the transverse septum
b. Parietal pericardium (pericardial sac)
lining of the heart which continues as the
visceral pericardium
c. Visceral pericardium
d. Transverse Septum
Separates the pericardial cavity and the
pleuroperitoneal cavity
e. Pleuroperitoneal Cavity
contains the visceral organs (minus the
heart)
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 CHAMBERS OF THE HEART
Sinus venosus
Dark colored triangular structure, connected to the
ventral wall of the right atrium

Left and Right atria

anterior, thin walled

Ventricle
posterior, thick walled

Conus arteriosus
bulb like, lies obliquely on the dorsal wall of the right
atrium
base of all the arteries
arises from the antero-ventral side of the ventricle
BIO
* Contraction Systole
LAB
* Relaxation Diastole
 Ventral Aspect
Ventricle
Right Atrium
Left Atrium
Conus Arteriosus
Truncus Arteriosus
Pulmocutaneous Artery
Systemic Artery
Common Carotid Artery

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 Dorsal Aspect
1. Ventricle
2. Right Atrium
3. Left Atrium
4. Sinus Venosus
5. Pulmonary Vein
6. Pulmocutaneous Arches
7. Systemic Arches
8. Common Carotid Arches

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 VENOUS SYSTEM
Principal Divisions

Systemic
carry unoxygenated blood from the different
parts of the body directly to the right atrium

Portal
carry unoxygenated blood through a system
of blood capillaries in the liver or kidney from
where the blood is recollected by systemic
veins to be brought back to the right atrium of
the heart

Pulmonary
carry oxygenated blood from the lungs
BIO
LAB directly to the left atrium
 VEINS
Left/Right Precaval veins
a.k.a. anterior vena cava
big blood vessels entering the Sinus venosus antero-lateral
angles
Postcaval vein
a.k.a. posterior vena cava

Veins connected to the Anterior vena cava

a. External jugular vein
anterior
b. Innominate vein
c. Subclavian vein
Brachial vein
Musculocutaneous vein
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 PORTAL VEINS
Hepatic Portal System
Consist of the:
a. Hepatic portal vein
drains blood from the following tributaries
gastric vein from the stomach
splenic vein from the spleen
pancreatic vein from the pancreas
intestinal veins from the small intestines
Ventral abdominal vein
brings the drained blood to the liver

b. Hepatic vein

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 PORTAL VEINS
Renal Portal System
Consist of the:
a. Renal portal vein
lies on the lateral margin of the kidney alongside the
mesonephric duct
b. Veins that drain from the dorsal body wall
c. Oviduct (for females)
d. Femoral vein
anterior and dorsal sides of the thigh and the rest of the
hindlimb
e. Pelvic vein
medial branch of the femoral vein before joining the renal
portal vein
course along the posterior abdominal wall, where they
receive short veins from the urinary bladder, and then
unite ventrally to form the anterior abdominal vein
f. Sciatic vein
BIO
LAB posterior side of the thigh
 Pulmonary Veins
from the lungs they enter the left
atrium

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 ARTERIAL SYSTEM

Arteries
thick-walled, light colored, generally
deeply set in the body
blood flow is pulsating or in spurts
carry oxygenated blood (minus the
pulmonary artery)

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 ARTERIAL SYSTEM
Ventral Side of the Heart

Conus arteriosus
arises from the right antero ventral side of
the ventricle
serves as the base of all arteries

Truncus arteriosus
anterior of the conus arteriosus
immediately divides into the left and right
trunks

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Arteries connected to the Truncus
arteriosus
Common carotid artery
anterior branch
divides into two branches:
Internal carotid artery
carotid gland round yellowish gland located near the base
External carotid artery
Systemic artery
middle branch
arches dorsally and posteriorly
gives small branches to the:
Larynx, muscles of the jaw, dorsal side of the
esophagus, orbit, nose, vertebral column
Pulmocutaneous Artery
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 Branches of Systemic Artery
Subclavian artery
supplies the shoulder and neighboring parts
brachial artery: subclavian artery that continues to the
forearm
Pulmocutaneous artery
posterior
Dorsal Aorta
posterior continuation of the unified left and right
systemic arches
Coeliaco-mesenteric artery
arising ventrally at the junction of the systemic arches
and dorsal aorta
divides into the:
coeliac artery
anterior mesenteric artery
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 Branches of Systemic Artery
Posterior mesenteric artery
unpaired artery near the posterior end of the aorta,
arising from its ventral side
Left/Right common Iliac arteries
the split of the posterior end of the aorta
Femoral artery
small dorsally directed artery posterior to the common
iliac
supplies blood to the skin and muscles of the anterior
part of the thigh
Sciatic artery
common iliac artery that proceeds to the rest of the
hindlimb

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 Internal Structure of the
Frogs Heart and Its
Branches
a. Right Atrium
larger thin walled chamber of the heart
b. Left Atrium
smaller thin-walled chamber of the heart
has openings on its dorsal wall near interatrial
septum for pulmonary veins
c. Interatrial septum
divides the left and right atrium
d. Sinoatrial aperture
oval opening on the dorsal wall of the right atrium
serves as the entrance of blood from the sinus
venosus

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 Internal Structure of the
Frogs Heart and Its
Branches
e. Ventricle
large thick walled chamber
f. Muscular Pockets
located at the inner wall of the ventricle
g. Atrioventricular apertures
connects the atria and ventricle
serves as entrance of blood to the ventricle
guarded by valves which prevent back-flow of blood
h. Septa
two longitudinal division within truncus arteriosus
divides truncus into three channels

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 Parts
1.Spiral valve
2. Right atrium
3. Left atrium
4. Ventricle
5. Truncus arteriosus
6. Pulmocutaneous arch
7. Systemic arch
8. Carotid arch

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 Internal Anatomy of the
Mammalian Heart
a. ventricles
constitute the bulk of the heart
thick walled and highly muscular
b. apex
posterior narrow portion
c. base
broad anterior portion
d. atria
anterior to the base
thin-walled and dark colored
right atrium- bigger
left atrium- smaller
where pulmonary v. enters
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 Internal Anatomy of the
Mammalian Heart
e. Interatrial septum
separates right from left atrium
f. Sinus venosus
in adults is incorporated into this region as
Sinoatrial node (SA)
g. Interventricular septum
completely partitions the ventricles
right ventricle
is smaller and thinner walled
left ventricle
includes the apex
bigger and thicker walled
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 Internal Anatomy of the
Mammalian Heart
h. right atrio-ventricular aperture
opening between the right atrium and right ventricle
guarded by three membranous flaps or TRICUSPID
VALVES
i. left atrio-ventricular aperture
opening between the left atrium and left ventricle
guarded by two membranous flaps or BICUSPID
VALVES or MITRAL VALVE
j. trabeculae carne
muscular ridges that deeply cleave the inner walls of
the ventricles
k. papillary muscles
pointed finger-like muscles
project from the walls of the ventricles
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 Internal Anatomy of the
Mammalian Heart
l. chordae tendinae
fine thread-like fibers connecting the free edges of
the tricuspid and bicuspid vavles to the tip of the
papillary muscles
m. pulmonary artery
opening in the right ventricles where the blood
leaves
n. semilunar valves
guards the exists of the right ventricle to the aorta
guards the exists of the left ventricle to the
pulmonary arteries

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 NERVOUS SYSTEM AND
SENSORY ORGANS

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 Types of Nervous Systems
1. Diffuse type or nerve net
Simplest type of N.S.
Found in Coelenterates (Hydra)
Termed nerve net because it consists of a network of
nerve cells, each with a number of processes radiating
from the cell body in all directions
The processes of neighboring nerve cells connects to
one another to form a continuous network.
Called diffuse type because primitive nerve cells
(neuries or protoneurons) non-polar; nerve impulses
are conducted in all directions from point of stimulation,
no definite pathways
In higher types of nerve cells, nerve impulses travel in
one direction only (cell body - > to axon)
Main distinguishable characteristic: Lack of
centralization or absence of concentrations of
nerve cell bodies at certain areas of the body of
the animal.

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 Types of Nervous Systems
2. Ladder type
Dugesia (flatworm)
Has cephalization head region
Parts:
Cerebral ganglia primitive brain formed from
aggregation of nerve cells
Longitudinal nerve cords lie parallel to each
other and pass posteriorly along most of the entire
length of the body
Transverse nerves rung-like structures of a
ladder that connect longitudinal nerves into a
linear seriesn hence the term ladder type of
nervous system
Lateral nerves innervate the body wall and other
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 Types of Nervous Systems
3. Ganglionic type
Found in Annelids and arthropods
Consists of:
A. Dorsal Brain (Cerebral ganglia)
located in the head
B. Ventral Nerve Cord
extends from the brain posteriorly along the length of
the rest of the body
Consists of a segmental series of paired, closely
approximated ganglia which are connected by two
longitudinal nerves strands
C. Longitudinal nerve strands
forms double chain of ganglia
. Arthropods
. N.S. is more centralized and has fewer ganglia due to
migration and fusion in the thorax and abdomen.
. Longitudinal nerve strands tend to fuse into a single strand.
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 Types of Nervous Systems

4. Tubular type
Found
Found in
in vertebrates
vertebrates
Tubular:
Tubular: vertebrate
vertebrate brain
brain and
and spinal
spinal cord
cord are
are hollow.
hollow.
Brain
Brain cavities,
cavities, termed
termed ventricles,
ventricles, are
are continued with the central
canal
canal of
of the
the spinal
spinal cord.
cord.

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 Types of Nervous
System

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 Overall Organization of the
Vertebrate N.S.
composed of:

1. central nervous system

includes the brain and the spinal cord
serves as a central exchange or switchboard

2. peripheral nervous system

consists of nerve cells and nerve fibers which
connect to the C.N.S. to all parts of the body

3. the sense organs

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 Peripheral Nervous System
subdivided into the:

Somatic N. S.
innervates skeletal muscles, skin, and certain other body
parts
responsible for movement of various parts of the body thru
reflex actions and conscious control of will

Autonomic/Visceral N.S.
innervates cardiac muscles, smooth muscles, and glands
governs and controls the functions of the viscera (heart,
digestive tract, glands, etc)
carried out automatically and controlled at the unconscious
level
Includes the:
Sympathetic N.S.
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 Autonomic Nervous System
It consists of the cranial nerves and spinal nerves from
the spinal cord.
Frog: 10 pairs
Man: 12 pairs
Spinal nerves
consist of:
a. Sensory/Afferent
Transmit impulses from the receptors to the C.N.S.
b. Motor efferent
Transmit impulses from the C.N.S. to the effectors

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 Spinal Nerves
1st to 9th Spinal Nerve exit through the intervertebral
foramina
10th gets out through the lateral foramina at the
anterior third of the urostyle
Glands of Swammerdam or Periganglionic glands:
masses of white calcareous materials found at the
sites of the exit of the nerves.

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 Spinal Nerves
Spinal nerves
1st connect with larger 2nd spinal nerve to form Brachial plexus
2nd largest of the first three spinal nerves and connects with them
to form Brachial plexus
- main trunk extends to the forelimb as the brachial nerve
3rd - connect with the larger 2nd Spinal Nerve to form the Brachial
Plexus. *Plexus- a network of communicating nerve fibers
4th - extend postero-laterally do not form a plexus.
5th - extend postero-laterally do not form a plexus.
6th - extend postero-laterally do not form a plexus
7th - are sharply directed posteriorly and goes along with the 8th
and 9th spinal nerve to form the lumbo-sacral or sciatic plexus.
8th - Joins with the 9th to form the Sciatic Nerve
9th - Joins with the 8th to form the Sciatic Nerve
10th - lies close to the side of the Urostyle (hard to see)

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 Autonomic Nervous System
consists of 2 delicate chains of ganglia
(Sympathetic Trunk) and several unpaired ganglia
a. Sympathetic Trunk
originate from the cranial cavity
lie alongside the systemic arch and dorsal aorta
b. Jugular foramina
located lateral to the occipital condyles
c. Sympathetic ganglia
node like structures found at varying intervals along the
trunks
d. Rami communicantes or Visceral rami
connected to the sympathetic ganglia
* P.N.S. does not form an orderly chain of ganglia and need
not be dissected.
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 Central Nervous System
The brain and the spinal cord are enveloped by two
meninges or membrane:
Outer pigmented Dura Matter
Pia Matter
*Both inseparately adhere to the nervous tissue.
Subdural Space in between the 2; filled with
cerebrospinal fluid

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 Parts of the Frog Brain
1. Telencephalon or cerebral hemispheres
Enlarged elongated bodies separated medially by a
groove, found at the anterior part of the brain
Found here are complex centers of consciousness and
sensations
2. Olfactory bulbs
3. Telencephalon
where the first pair of cranial nerves, the olfactory
nerves originate.
4. Olfactory nerves first pair of cranial nerves
5. Diencephalons (thalamencephalon or twixtbrain
depressed unpaired lobe posterior to the Telencephalon
The relay center for sensory impulses; centers of
regulating body temperature, water balance;
carbohydrate and fat metabolism
6. Anterior Choroid Plexus
thin membrane that acts as the roof of dicencephalon
7. Pineal body or epiphysis
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 Parts of the Frog Brain
8. Mesencephalon or optic lobes
a pair of rounded bodies posterior to the diencephalons
where visual and auditory reflex centers are located.
9. Metencephalon or cerebellum
the narrow fold posterior to the mesencepahlon
Responsible for muscle coordination and proprioception
10. Myelencephalon or medulla oblongata
Triangular portion posterior to the metencephalon. Its
broad anterior portion is partly covered dorsally by the
metencephalon, while its tapered portion is continuous
with the spinal cord
Located in the various areas of the medulla oblongata
are the reflex centers that control respiration, heart rate,
dilation and constriction of blood vessels and swallowing.
11. Fourth ventricle
The triangular cavity of the which is covered by a thin
highly vascular membrane
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 Parts of the Frog Brain
12. Filum terminale
tapering posterior portion where the spinal cord extends
from the myelencephalon
occupies the cavity of the urostyle
13. dorsal median sulcus
groove that extends along the median region of the
spinal cord
14. Ventral median fissure
the corresponding ventral groove of the Dorsal median
sulcus

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 Parts of the Frog Brain
Ventral Aspect
15. Optic chiasma
ventral side of the dicencephalon
formed by the crossing of the fibers of the second pair of
cranial nerves
16. Optic nerves
the second pair of cranial nerves
17. Infundibulum
bilobed extension of the diencephalons, posterior to the
optic chiasma
18. Hypophysis or pituitary body
a small round gland attached to the postero-ventral side of
the infundibulum, which lies on a depression on the
floor of the skull
The hypophysis has endocrine functions regulated by
neurosecretions produced in the diencephalons
19. Sella tursica
depression on the floor of the skull
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 Parts of the Frog Brain
Ventricles of the brain

1. first and second lateral ventricles

cavity of the cerebral hemispheres
communicate with the cavity of the olfactory bulbs
2. rhincoeles
cavity of the olfactory bulbs
3. third ventricle
communicates with the lateral ventricles through narrow
opening
foramen of Monro
4. Foramen of Monro
narrow opening of the third ventricle

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 Parts of the Frog Brain
Ventricles of the brain

5. optic ventricles or opticoeles

expanded cavities in the mesencecephalon
6. Iter or aqueduct of Sylvus
narrow cannal where the third and optic ventricles connect
with forth ventricle
7. Fourth ventricle
continous posteriorly with the cavity of the spinal cord
8. Central canal or canalis centralis
cavity of the spinal cord

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 F
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 Sense Organs
The Eyes
1. Sclerotic coat
the outermost coat of the eye
Tough, opaque, protective structure that maintains the
shape of the eyeball.
2. Cornea
anterior portion of the sclerotic coat
3. Conjuctiva
thin, transparent membrane covering the outer surface of
the cornea and continuous with the inner surface of the
eyelids
4. Optic Nerve
White, thread-like structure that can be observed at the
posterior part of the eyeball.
5. Retractor bubli
muscles attached to the sclerotic coat around the optic
nerve which pulls the eye into the orbit
*Six other muscles are attached to the eyeball at
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 Sense Organs
The Ear
Sense organs of hearing and equilibrium
Frogs ear is composed of two parts:

Middle ear
1. external tympanic membrane
2. columella
rod-like bone located inside the tympanic cavity
extends across the tympanic cavity to the wall of the
skull.
3. Eustachian tube
where tympanic cavity connects with buccal cavity

Inner ear

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 Frog Ear

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 Lots-a Pizza

Acknowledgements:
Coca-cola

Manong Oca, the cockroach man

Mang Jimmys
Teka, teka..
The Self-Sacrificing Frogs
TO:
Sir OLIVER
Microscope and his gloves
>> secret
Atlas... natin yun. thanks po!
langyou
we love
Hickman, Campbell, Muller and the rest of the
gang Whats lablife without you
TFQvw Bibo Kids
ABM tambayan for accommodating us in secrecy

CD-R King

Nokia 7610, Nokia 6600 and Nikon Digicam for

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the captured moments
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