CHAPTER 8 : DYNAMIC

ECOSYSTEM
8.1 THE ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC
COMPONENTS OF THE
ENVIRONMENT
Ecology is the study of the interactions
among organisms and the interactions between
organisms and their environment.

Biotic components living

organisms

The non-living components (physical and

chemical factors) of the environment are called
the abiotic components .
THE ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC COMPONENTS
OF THE ENVIRONMENT
8.1 THE ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC
COMPONENTS OF THE
ENVIRONMENT
The abiotic components in an ecosystem are the
physical and chemical factors of the environment.
They are:
-pH
-Light intensity
-Topography: physical land features (altitude
, steepness of a slope)
-Humidity
-Temperature
-Microclimate : climate in a microhabitat
( underneath a rock)
PH
Most organisms survive well in neutral or nearly
environments.

Aquatic organisms are sensitive to the effects of

the pH of water and may be killed if the pH
changes considerably.

Some plants prefer a slightly acidic soil (for

example, pineapple,maize) while other prefer a
slightly alkaline soil (for example, ferns,coconut).
 HUMIDITY
Humidity refers to the amount of water vapour in the air.

When the humidity of the surrounding environment is

low, water evaporates faster from moist surfaces.

Humidity is usually higher during the night and lower

during the day.

Some organisms regulate their activities to avoid

dehydration, for instance, woodlice which are
usually found under stones and rotting tree stumps.
WOODLICE
 LIGHT INTENSITY
The intensity of light affects the distribution and growth
of plants, and the distribution of animals

Tall trees, which are exposed to a greater amount of

sunlight, form the canopy of the forest while plants
such as ferns and vines survive in the cover of
overhead shady trees.

Some animals which live below the canopy.

Mosses and small animals such as ants and earthworms

live at the ground level where there is less light.

Bacteria and fungi that live in the soil prefer dark

conditions.
TEMPERATURE
A drop in temperature within a certain range usually
results in a decline in the metabolic activities of the
organisms.

Temperatures higher than 45C usually lead to the

denaturation of enzymes within the organisms.

However, certain species can live in extreme

temperatures; the thermophilic bacteria, for example,
can survive in hot springs.

Aquatic environments undergo less extreme

temperature change and, therefore, provide more
stable habitats when compared to terrestrial
environments
 The living microorganism that lives in lava is called Archae Bacteria.

Metabolic activity too fast :

- Sudden weight loss
-Anemia
-Fatigue
-Elevated heart rate
-Irregular heartbeat
-Insomnia
-Dysautonomia autonomic nervous system
-Shortness of breath
-Muscle weakness
-Excessive sweating
DYSAUTONOMIA

TOPOGRAPHY
Topography refers to physical land features such as the
altitude, gradient and aspect of a region.

Higher altitudes are associated with lower atmospheric

pressures and temperatures.

Steep slopes suffer from more drainage and run-offs

. These habitats are not suitable for the survival of living
organisms.

Wind ward mountain slopes normally receive more

rain than leeward slopes which are protected from
winds and other physical elements. Therefore, different
organisms live on the different sides of a slope.
MICROCLIMATE
Microclimate refers to the climate in a
microhabitat, for example, underneath a rock.
Microclimate includes the humidity,
temperature, light intensity and atmospheric
conditions of a habitat where organisms live.
8.1 THE ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC
COMPONENTS OF THE
ENVIRONMENT
The biotic components of an ecosystem are the
living organisms such as humans, plants and
animals living within that environment.

The interactions between biotic components are

mainly for light, food and shelter.
8.1 THE ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC
COMPONENTS OF THE
ENVIRONMENT
The feeding relationship among the biotic
components
Biotic components are divided into 3 trophic level
based on their nutritional group :
a. Producers (autotrophs)

b. Consumers (heterotrophs)
-primary consumers (herbivores)
-secondary consumers ( carnivores)
-tertiary consumers ( carnivores)

c. Decomposers (saprotrophs)
PRODUCERS
Producers are autotrophs and consist
mainly of plants which synthesis organic
substances or food from nutrients and sunlight.
CONSUMERS
Organism that cannot carry out photosynthesis.
Acquire energy and most of their nutrients by feeding
on other organism.
DECOMPOSERS
Another important group of heterotrophs is the
decomposers such as bacteria and fungi.

They obtain energy from non-living organic material. The

carry out decomposition, the breakdown of the remains of
dead organisms including animal waste products into
simpler inorganic substances to be used by plants.
8.1 THE ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC
COMPONENTS OF THE
ENVIRONMENT
The food chain, food web and trophic levels
The food chain
A food chain is the feeding relationship between
living organisms by which energy is being
transferred from one organism to another
organism.
The food chain

Each feeding level is known as a trophic level. This food chain

indicates that energy is being transferred from one trophic
level to the next trophic level.
8.1 THE ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC
COMPONENTS OF THE
ENVIRONMENT
The food chain, food web and trophic levels
The pyramid number
The food chain can be displayed in the form of a
pyramid number.

The number of organisms decreases as the pyramid

moves to the top. On the other hand, the size of
organisms increases as we move from the base of the
pyramid to the top of the pyramid.

.
8.1 THE ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC COMPONENTS OF
THE ENVIRONMENT
The pyramid number
Fourth trophic level

Third trophic
level

Second trophic
level

First trophic
level
8.1 THE ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC
COMPONENTS OF THE
ENVIRONMENT
The food chain, food web and trophic levels
The food web
A food web is a network of several food chains that
are linked together.
 8.1 THE ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

The energy flow within a food web

As one organism eats another, energy is transferred from
one trophic level to the next.

Only approximately 10% is being transferred from one

trophic level to the other. Refer to figure 8.4 (page 250)

About 90% of energy in the food consumed is being used

for metabolic activities such as respiration, excretion and
digestion.

As we move higher along the food chain, a lesser amount of

energy is being received by the organisms at the higher
trophic levels.
 8.1 THE ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

The energy flow within a food web

 8.1 THE ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

The interaction between biotic components

The interactions include a prey-predator situation,
symbiosis, saprophytism and competition.

There are three categories of symbiosis, namely,

commensalism , mutualism and parasitism.

Competition can be sub-divided into two categories,

namely, interspecies or intraspecies competition.
 Interaction Between
Organisms

Long-lasting interactions Temporary interactions

Saprophytism Competition

Symbiosis
Prey-predator

Commensalism Mutualism Parasitism

 8.1 THE ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

The interaction between biotic components

Symbiosis
Symbiosis can be defined as a close and permanent
relationship between two or more organisms of different
species that live and interact together for an extended
period of time.
 8.1 THE ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

The interaction between biotic components

Symbiosis

Commensalis
Relationship between 2 species that

m
benefits one species but either
benefits nor harms the other species.

Commensal + o Host
2 types

Epiphyte Epizoics
s
Plants Animals
 8.1 THE ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

The interaction between biotic components

Symbiosis- commensalism

Epiphyte Staghorn
Birds nest fern fern

Green plants.
They will not drive
nutrition from its host.
(photosynthesise) Swollen stem

Aerial roots
Pigeon orchid
 8.1 THE ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT
The interaction between biotic components
Symbiosis- commensalism

Epizoics
An animal (commensal) attached to another animal (host).
Epizoics attach themselves to the bodies of their hosts for free
transport, protection and food leftover from their hosts meals.
The host neither suffer loss nor benefit from the epizoics.

acle Cyclops protozoa

arn tip) Crab (kutu air)
B e ri
(t

shark
 8.1 THE ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

The interaction between biotic components

Symbiosis

Mutualism
Relationship between two organism which both benefit.
Lichen
Combination of a green
alga and a fungus.
The green alga cells get
shelter, water, mineral
salts from fungus.
The fungus gets food and
oxygen from alga cells
which carry on
photosynthesis.
 8.1 THE ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

The interaction between biotic components

Symbiosis- mutualism
Rhizobium in the nodules
of leguminous plants
Rhizobium are nitrogen-fixing
bacteria living in nodules of
leguminous plant ( ).
Its convert atmospheric
nitrogen into ammonium
compounds that are used by
plants.
In return, the bacteria get
shelter and food from the
plants.
 8.1 THE ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

The interaction between biotic components

Symbiosis- mutualism

Microorganisms (protozoa & bacteria)

and herbivores

There are protozoa & bacteria living in the

alimentary canal of herbivore, produce the
enzyme cellulase to digest the cellulose of plant
material taken by host.
A large part of the sugar produced is absorbed
by the host herbivore. The balance is used by
the microorganisms.
 8.1 THE ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT
The interaction between biotic components
Symbiosis- mutualism
Sea anemone
(buran laut)

Sea anemone live on

the top of the shell of
marine snail.
Shell

(host) Hermit
crab (umang-
umang)

The hermit crab gets Sea anemone gets

protection from the transported and
tentacles of the sea sources of food from
anemone. hermit crab
 8.1 THE ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

The interaction between biotic components

Symbiosis- parasitism

PARASITISM
Relationship between two
organisms where the parasite
benefits but the host is harmed.
2 types:
Endoparasites
Ectoparasites
 8.1 THE ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

The interaction between biotic components

Symbiosis- parasitism

Endoparasit

Adaptation:
es
Tapeworms, flukes, plasmodium (caused malaria).

have protective cuticle & anti-enzymes to prevent

being digested by hosts enzymes, acids or alkaline
substances.
have flattened shape to cling on to the host.
carrying out anaerobic respiration.
great reproductive system.
 8.1 THE ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

The interaction between biotic components

Symbiosis- parasitism
 8.1 THE ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC COMPONENTS OF THE
ENVIRONMENT
The interaction between biotic components
Symbiosis- parasitism

Ectoparasit
Animal ectoparasites
es on plant hosts
Have hook to attach
themselves on their
hosts
Have sharp mouth
parts for hooking,
sucking or biting.
 8.1 THE ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

The interaction between biotic components

Symbiosis- parasitism
Animal
Ectoparasites

Plant
Ectoparasites
Have no leaves, stems or
roots.
Uses its haustorium to draw
nutrients from host phloem.
 8.1 THE ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

The interaction between biotic components

saprophytism

Saprophytism
Animals that feed on dead organic matter that has
been digested.
Saprophytes produce enzymes to digest and decompose
the dead complex organic matter.
8.1 THE ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

The interaction between biotic components

Prey-Predator Relationship

Prey-Predator Relationship
The relationship exists when a weaker
animal (the prey) is hunted and
eaten by another stronger animal
(the predator).
This relationship is important to keep
different animal populations of an
ecosystem in balance.
8.1 THE ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

The interaction between biotic components

Prey-Predator Relationship

PREY OR PREDATOR?
 The interaction between biotic components
Prey-Predator Relationship

rats
owls Prey
increase

Predator Predator
The dynamic equilibrium of decrease increase
the preys and predators
Prey
population decrease
8.1 THE ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

The interaction between biotic components

competition
Competition:
Interaction between 2 organisms living together in
a habitat and competing for limited recourses.
Animal usually compete for food, shelter and
breeding mates, while plants compete for space,
light, nutrients and water.
2 types:
Interspecific competition (Occur between
different species)
Intraspecific competition. (Occur between
the same species)
8.2 THE PROCESS OF
COLONISATION AND
SUCCESSION IN AN
ECOSYSTEM
ECOSYSTE
M
A community of living organisms
interacting with each other and with
the non-living environment
ECOSYSTE
M
Ecological terms
 Species : a group of organisms of the same kind that can
interbreed to produce offspring.

Population : a group of same species of organisms that live

in the same place at the same time.

Community : populations of different species in the same

place that interact with one another.
 Habitat : The place where a particular organisms live.

Ecosystem : is made up of living organisms and non living

things ( water, air, temperature, light) that interact with
one another.
 The natural environment in which an organism lives
Habitat and get their food, shelter, living space, and breeding
sites.

Consists of a group of organisms that look alike and

species have similar characteristics, share the same ecological
niche and are capable of interbreeding and producing
fertile offspring.

Consists of a group of organisms of the same

population species living in the same habitat at the same
time.

A naturally occurring collection of plant and

Community animal species living within a defined area in
an ecosystem

The function of an organism or the role plays

niche in an ecosystem.
COLONISATIO
N AND
SUCCESSION
 Human activities (e.g. forest clearing, tin
mining and natural phenomena (e.g. forest
fires, tsunamis, earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions) constantly reform our environment,
leaving behind bare rocks, sand, earth, or
ashes with no life.

Colonisation The process whereby

living organisms move
into this newly formed
area which is completely
devoid of life.
8.2 THE PROCESS OF
COLONISATION AND
SUCCESSION IN AN ECOSYSTEM
The first organisms that enter that area and
colonize it are called the pioneer species .

The pioneer species are normally hardy plants

which are highly adapted to survive on the
habitat.

After the colonisation, the pioneer species

gradually alter the habitat so that it becomes
more suitable for successive organisms to
live in it.
 Bare Pioneer Succesor Climax
ground species species community

Succession is the continuous process

of changes where one community is
Succession replaced by another community as the
result of the changing habitat created
by the former community.
8.2 THE PROCESS OF COLONISATION
AND SUCCESSION IN AN ECOSYSTEM

Succession is a gradual and a long-term process and it

can be hundreds of years before a stable community is
formed.

At each stage of the succession, the community will

modify the habitat so that it becomes more favourable
to live in for the new organisms in the sequence of
succession.
THE PROCESS OF COLONISATION
AND SUCCESSION ON A BARE
GROUND
Bare ground
an environment of bare rocks and sand left behind
by a forest fire
not suitable for most organism to live
water re-enters the environment after the ground
cools down
spores and seeds of certain plants start to
germinate and grow when air, water, nutrients and
sunlight are available
colonisation takes place
THE PROCESS OF COLONISATION AND SUCCESSION ON A BARE GROUND

Pioneer species
First colonizers : typically hardy plants (grasses, ferns, sedges
)
have special adaptations, enable to survive in dry and nutrient-
poor soil
1. Produce large numbers of easily dispersed seeds, helps
colonise open spaces
2. Soil forms from the actions of pioneer species and their
decomposed remains
3. Dense root system - bind the sand and soil particles together,
hold water and humus to improve structure of soil
4. Have short life cycle, when they die, the remains add to the
humus content of soil
. Modify the environment, create conditions which are more
conducive to other species
THE PROCESS OF COLONISATION AND SUCCESSION ON A BARE GROUND

Successor species
Herbaceous plants(dandelion, weeds) grow larger and
gradually shade the original pioneer species, eventually
replacing it altogether
have small wind-dispersed seeds, able to spread, germinate
and grow rapidly
changes the structure and quality of soil, making it more
conducive for the growth of bigger plants like shrubs
 THE PROCESS OF COLONISATION AND
SUCCESSION ON A BARE GROUND
Dominant species
Shrubs modify the environment, allows trees to grow
large trees provide shade, the shrubs cannot compete and are
replaced by forest-floor species which require lower light
intensity
Succession: the process which one community changes the
environment so that it is replaced by another community
changes occur in the species structure and in the organization
of an ecological community over time during succession
Climax community
ecological succession leads to a relatively stable and mature
community which is in equilibrium with its environment
climax community undergoes little or no change in its species
structure
Example: Tropical rainforest in Malaysia
COLONISATION & SUCCESSION IN
MANGROVE SWAMPS
(PAYA BAKAU)

Mangrove swamps found in tropical regions

where fresh water meets salt water.
They have a bad environment for normal
plants.
soft muddy soil and strong coastal wind
high concentration of salt
very low levels of oxygen
Exposed to high intensity of sunlight
 Bad condition of Problems faced by
Adaptations
Mangrove Swamps mangroves trees

Soft muddy soil,

strong coastal Support problem
winds

High Hypertonic to root cells,

concentration of problem in seeds
salt germination.

Very low levels of Root breathing problem

oxygen in anaerobic condition

Exposed to The rate of transpiration

intensity of increase caused water
sunlight loss
 Bad Problems Adaptations
Environment Faced by
of Mangrove Mangrove
Swamp Plants
Soft muddy soil Support problems Cable roots (long, highly
Strong coastal wind branched underground roots)
Prop roots (aerial roots)
Aerial roots (anchor plants
onto muddy soil)
Buttress roots (extends
above ground as platelike
outgrowth of the trunk)
Waterlogged soil Low level of oxygen Pneumatophores
lead to anaerobic (breathing roots) which
environment grow upwards for gaseous
exchange during low
tides.
Pores called lenticels
can be found on bark of
mangrove trees
Direct exposure to sun High rate of Leaves are covered by thick
transpiration layer of cuticle, able to store
water
High salinity of sea Soil hypertonic to root Cell sap of root cells has
water cells higher osmotic pressure
(hypertonic)than
surroundings soil water
Ensures the roots not to
lose water through
osmosis
Excess salt in hypertonic
solution excreted as
crystalline salt from
hydathodes (pores on the
lower epidermis of leaves)
Soft and waterlogged Seeds will die when fall Viviparity
soil onto the ground (germinating) of mangrove
seeds attached to mother
plant
increases the chance of
survival of mangrove
seedlings float
horizontally on water and
get washed up to sand or
mudflats to establish a
new population
 Zonation of Mangrove Swamps

Seaward zone middle zone inland zone

The colonisation and succession occur. The condition

becomes more suitable for the successors which are
the dominant species at that time.
 A A
A A
A
A A
A A
A S
A
A S S
A S SS S
S
A

S
S
S
S
A S S
A S
A A
A A
A
A A
A A

A A
A

S S
S

Distribution of different mangrove species at the mouth of a

river.
Avicennia sp.
 Succulent leaves

Long underground
cable roots with
pneumatophore
(breathing root)
Sonneratia sp.
Rhizophora sp.
Prop roots of Rhizophora sp.
Viviparous seedlings which able to
germinate while still being attach to the
parent tree.
Bruguiera sp.
Buttress root of
Bruguiera sp.
Viviparous seedlings and succulent leaves
PROCESSES OF COLONISATION AND
SUCCESSION IN A POND

Pioneer stage (sunken aquatic plants such as Hydrilla,

Cabomba)

Succession by duckweeds (Lemna sp.), lotus,

floating plants water hyacinths (Eichornia sp.)

Succession by (sedge, cattails)

emergent plants

Succession by herbaceous plants

Succession by woody
plants

Climax Community
1
When the decompose
species die

Organic matter
converted into humus
2

Eroded soil
from the pond Deposited at the base of
bank (pond the pond
apron)

The pond become shallow

Pioneer stage
When pioneer plants die and
decompose, the organic matter
settle to the bottom of the pond and
make the pond shallower.
This produce suitable conditions for
aquatic floating plants.

Sucession by aquatic floating

plants
Floating plants cover the surface
of the pond and prevent light from
entering the pond.
Pioneer plants cannot perform
photosynthesis and die. These
dead plants will sink to the bottom
and increase the organic matter
layer of the bottom
Succession by amphibious plants
Dead aquatic floating plants and
eroded soil from the pond banks
will raise the pond floor and make
the pond too shallow for aquatic
plants to float.
The aquatic plants are succeeded
by amphibious plants.

Succession by herbaceous plants

The continued deposition of
organic matter enables grass to
gradually replace amphibious
plants.
Succession by woody plants
The death of amphibious plants
caused continued deposition of
organic matter and evaporation
of pond water will make the pond
very shallow and eventually dry it
up.
Finally land plants and other
woody plants will replace the
amphibious plants and form a
jungle.

Climax community
The succession will stop when a
level of balance is achieved.
8.3 Population Ecology
8.3 POPULATION ECOLOGY
Population- Consists of a group of organisms of the
same species living in the same habitat at the same
time.

There are two main sampling techniques used in the

study of population ecology. These techniques are:
i. The capture, mark, release and recapture technique
ii. ii. The quadrate sampling technique
 THE QUADRATE SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

To determine the density , frequency and

distribution of plants and slow moving animals in a
particular area.

A quadrant is a square or rectangular frame made of

wood, metal or rope to represent a particular area. This
area is subdivided into smaller squares. The quadrat is
placed randomly in the area under investigation.
 Sampling techniques
Allow ecologist to estimate the total population
sizes and densities.
 Quadrat sampling
technique
Used in the studies of plant/ immobile animals populations
The size of the quadrat used depends on the size,
distribution and density of the organisms being studied.
For example, a quadrat of 10cm x 10 cm is suitable for
estimating the population of small organism such as lichens
and moss
A number of quadrats are set up randomly throughout the
area being studied.
The species present within the frame is then counted and

the number recorded.

The data collected from the different sites enclosed by the

quadrats are used as samples to represent the entire

habitat.
 The data collected from the different sites
enclosed by the quadrats can be used to
determine the following:
Frequency of a species
Density of the species
Percentage coverage of the species
FREQUENCY OF A SPECIES
Frequency is the number of times a particular species
is found when a quadrat is thrown a certain number of
times.

Number of quadrats
Percentage containing the species X100%
=
frequency Number of
quadrats sampled
DENSITY OF THE SPECIES
Density is the mean number of individuals of the
species per unit area.
Density can only be used to estimate the
population of plants which exist as separate
units.

Total number of individuals

of a species in all quadrats
Density =
Number of quadrats sampled x
area of each quadrat sampled
PERCENTAGE COVERAGE OF THE
SPECIES
Percentage coverage is an indication of the area of the
quadrat that is occupied by a species.
Percentage coverage is useful when it is not
possible to identify separate individuals of a
species.

Aerial coverage of all quadrats (m^2)

Percentage
= X100%
coverage
Number of quadrats sampled
x quadrat area
LETS DO SOME ACTIVITIES
Calculating the density of the plant:
Quadrat
Nunber of
number
species X Total number of individuals
(1mx1m)
of a species in all quadrats
1 2 Density =
Number of quadrats sampled
x area of each quadrat
2 3 sampled
3 5
4 2
5 4
6 3
7 3
8 1
ACTIVITY AGAIN
Calculating the percentage coverage of the plant

Quadrat number Aerial coverage

Aerial coverage of all
(1x1mx1m) (m2) Percentage
quadrats (m^2)
coverage = X100%
1 0.2 Number of quadrats
sampled x quadrat area
2 0.3
3 0.4
4 0.2
5 0.5
6 0.4
7 0.3
8 0.6
9 0.6
CAPTURE, MARK, RELEASE AND
RECAPTURE TECHNIQUE
The method is used to estimate the population
sizes of mobile animals such as small mammals,
birds, butterflies, woodlice and other insects.
 Steps
A portion of the population is captured, marked with a
ring, a tag or with waterproof coloured ink, cellulose paint
or nail vanish.

The marked animals are then released into the general

population.

After a suitable period of time (a few days to a week),

another portion (second animal sample) is captured and
the number of marked individuals within the sample is
counted.

The method is most useful when it is not practical to count

all the individuals in the population.
Formula of population

Number of organisms in the first sample x

Population = number of organisms in the second sample
size Number of marked organisms recaptured
 The
capture, mark, release and recapture
method assumes that
The marked animals are not harmed or predated upon.
Mix freely
The animal population under study is stable with no
significant changes during the investigation
Each marked individual has the same probability of being
recaptured
 Toensure that the result are more
accurate:
Trap/capture large samples.
Captured randomly
Enough time must be given for the marked and
unmarked individual to mix with the rest of the
population.
The marks must be permanent and not easily
detected by other animals.
USING THE CAPTURE, MARK, RELEASE
AND RECAPTURE TECHNIQUE
By using the following formula:

Population axb

=
c
a: number of individuals from the first capture
b: number of individuals from the second capture
c:number of marked individuals recaptured
site number of number of individuals Estimated
individuals from from the second capture population
the first capture(a)
Total number Number of
(b) marked
individual
s (c)
A 10 12 4 (10 x 12)/4=30

B 8 9 2 (8 x 9)/2= 36

c 10 9 3 (10 x 9)/3= 30

Estimated population of garden snails = (30+36+30)/3 = 32

ABIOTIC FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE THE
POPULATION DISTRIBUTION OF AN ORGANISM
The population distribution of an organism is
affected by changes in the abiotic factors :

light
temperature humidity
intensity

pH aspect
 The relationship between an organism and biotic
factors can be investigated by estimating the
percentage coverage of Pleurococcus sp. on
the bark of trees

Pleurococcus sp. is a unicellular green

alga.
 A quadrat size of 10cmx10cm is used. The percentage
coverage is determined by placing the quadrat at
different aspects. (An aspect is the direction of wind or
sunlight to which an organism is exposed)
Each small quadrat is 1% or 1 cm2. Only squares that
are covered by half or more than half of the species are
counted.
Omit the squares that are covered by less than half.
 10cm

1 2 3 4 5 6

7 8 9 10 11 12

13 14 15 16 17 18
10cm
19 20 21 22 23 24

25 26 27 28 29

This quadrat ( 10 cm x 10cm ) shows a percentage coverage of

29% of the object.
BELOW IS A SAMPLE OF THE
RESULTS OBTAINED:

Aspect N NE E SE S SW W Nw
Percentag
e coverage
of
45 60 50 35 44 52 48 45
Pleurococ
cus sp.
(cm2)
 Overall results
The population distribution of Pleurococcus sp. Is the
highest in the north-east(NE) and south-west(SW).
The mild temperature and light intensities are conductive
for the Pleurococcus sp. To photosynthesis the
percentage coverage is higher.
The higher humidity in both these area also means that
Pleurococcus sp. would be able to obtain more moisture
than it would on any other side.
 The east(E) and west(W)
temperature and light intensity are high.

dehydrate the cells of the Pleurococcus sp.

In addition, the east and west sides are less moist.

IN GENERAL
A lower temperature and a low light intensity are
not suitable for the growth of the Pleurococcus sp.
The pH value on the bark of tree at different
aspects can be tested by using moist pH paper.
The population distribution of Pleurococcus sp. is
higher at a neutral pH.
POP QUIZ !
1)Name the method that is suitable for estimating the
population size of
(a)Mimosa pudica in the school field.

(b)garden snails in the school garden.

(c)Pleurococcus sp. on the bark of a tree

2)Suggest a way to improve the accuracy of quadrat

sampling technique when estimating the population
size in1(a).
3)State two environmental factors that may cause the
mimosa pudica to grow profusely( ) and make it a
nuisance( ) in the school field.
 4)Calculate the percentage coverage of the plant Y.

Quadrat number Aerial coverage

(1x1mx1m) (m^2)
1 0.4
2 0.2
3 0.3
4 0.5
5 0.5
6 0.2
7 0.4
8 0.7
9 0.6
10 0.5
 1.(a) quadrat sampling technique
(b)capture, mark, release and recapture technique
(c)quadrat sampling technique
2.0.5 - 1.0m2 quadrats would be suggested for short
grassland or dwarf heath
3.Light intensity of the field, Humidity of the field
4)Percentage coverage of the plant Y
=(0.4+0.2+0.3+0.5+0.5+0.2+0.4+0.7+0.6+0.5)/
(10x1)x100%
=43%
 CLASSIFICATIONS OF ORGANISMS
Taxonomy is the branch of Biology concerned with the
identification, naming and classification of organisms.
It is a systematic method of classifying organisms based on
their characteristics and similarities.
Classifications is necessary so that:
Organisms can be easily and accurately identified.
Enables scientists to communicate accurately and precisely with one
another.
All organisms are divided into five kingdoms:
i. Monera
ii. Protista
iii. Fungi
iv. Plantae
v. Animalia
 MONERA(PROKARYOTAE)
Characteristics of Monera:
i. Unicellular organisms.
ii. Have a cell wall but do not have membrane-bound
organelles and nucleus.
iii. Do not have a nuclear membrane and genetic material is
scattered in the cytoplasm.
iv. Cyanobacteria and certain bacteria can carry out
photosynthesis.
Examples of Monera:
i. Cyanobacteria (blue green algae)
ii. Bacteria
Most bacteria have three typical shapes:
i. Rod-shaped
ii. Round
iii. Spiral
 PROTISTA
Kingdom Protista includes algae and protozoa.
Characteristics of Protista:
i. Contains nuclei and numerous organelles that are
surrounded by membranes.
ii. Can be either heterotrophic or autotrophic, or both.
iii. The cells of multicellular protists are not specialised to
perform specific functions within the organisms.
iv. Plant-like protists, such as green algae, have
chloroplasts to undergo photosynthesis.
Examples of protists:
i. Amoeba sp.
ii. Paramecium sp.
iii. Spirogyra sp.
iv. Trypanosoma sp.
 Trypanosoma causes sleeping sickness
Symptoms of sleeping sickness:

- anxiety, moody, fever, drowsiness during the day,

insomnia at night, headache
 FUNGI
Characteristics of Fungi:
i. Mostly multicellular organisms, but some are
unicellular microorganisms.
ii. Cell wall contains a material called chitin.
iii. Main body consists a network of thread-like
hyphae called mycelium.
iv. All fungi are saprophytic. They obtain their
energy by decomposing decaying organisms and
absorbing the resulting nutrients from the
organic remains.
v. Do not have chlorophyll.
Examples of fungi:
i. Moulds (Mucor sp.)
ii. Mushrooms
iii. Yeasts
 PLANTAE
Characteristics of Plantae:
i. Immobile.
ii. They are multicellular organisms.
iii. Contains chlorophyll to undergo photosynthesis.
iv. Plant cells are enclosed in cellulose cell walls.
v. Plant cells are organised into specialised tissues such as
phloem and xylem.
Examples of Plantae:
i. Various types of mosses
ii. Ferns
iii. Conifers
iv. Flowering plants
 ANIMALIA
Characteristics of Animalia:
i. Are multicellular heterotrophic organisms with
well-developed tissues
ii. Do not have rigid cell walls and chloroplasts.
iii. Most are mobile.
iv. Animals usually digest their food internally, unlike
fungi which rely on external digestion.
v. Some, such as sponges and barnacles, are
permanently attached to surfaces.
Examples of Animalia:
i. Mammals
ii. Reptiles
iii. Fishes
iv. Amphibians
v. Birds
HIERARCHY IN THE CLASSIFICATION OF
ORGANISMS

Organisms are classified according to their basic

characteristics.
They are classified into seven levels:
i. Kingdom
ii. Phylum
iii. Class
iv. Order
v. Family
vi. Genus
vii. Species
 Kingdom is the largest unit of classification and
contains the largest number of organisms.
It is divided into smaller units called phyla.
A phylum is subdivided into classes, a class into
orders, an order into families, a family into ganera
and a genus into species.
As going down the hierarchy:
i. Number of organisms at each level decreases.
ii. Number of similar features of an organism increases.
The organisms of a species are very similar to one
another. However, they still have individual
differences.
A species is a group of organisms which share
many common features and are capable of
interbreeding to produce fertile offspring.
 The naming of organisms or biological nomenclature
is based on the Linnaeus binomial system.
In this system, each organism has two names in
Latin.
First name begins with a capital letter refers to the
name of the genus.
Second name begins with a small letter refers to the
name of the species.
Example: Homo sapiens (Scientific name of humans)
Homo refers to the genus and sapiens refers to the species.
The generic and specific names are written in italics.
Alternatively, the words can be underlined, Homo sapiens.
 Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Class Mammalia
Order Primates
Family Hominidae
Genus Homo
Species sapiens

Table 1:Hierachy in the classification of

humans
Common name Scientific name
Hibiscus Hibiscus rosa-sinensis
Oil palm Elaeis guineensis
Durian Durio zibenthinus
Frog Bufo melanostictus
Fruit fly Drosophila melangogaster
Black rat Rattus rattus
Maize Zea mays
Paddy Oryza sativa
Rambutan Nephelium lappaceum
Table 2: Scientific names of some animals and plants
 THE IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY
The diverse species and the variety of ecosystems in
the biosphere provide various biological products,
many of which play important roles in the economy.
Example: food, medicine, timber, spices, rubber and
organic oils.
Plants in tropical rainforests provide about 25% of raw
materials for the pharmaceutical industry.
According to the National Cancer Institute, 70% of these
plants are useful in the treatment of cancer.
The variety of species and ecosystems provide many
environmental services to humans as well as to
other species.
These include pollination, nutrient cycling, regulation of
the water, carbon cycle, and climate.
 All species are supported by the
interactions among other species and
their ecosystems for food, shelter and
other basic needs.
If a species disappears, the survival of other
species which depend on it may be threatened.
As a result, the whole ecosystem will be
affected.
The diversity of plants and animals also
means a diversity in the genetic pool, that
is, the geneic variations in the different
populations of plant and animal species.
8.5 THE IMPACT OF
MICROORGANISMS ON LIFE
THE IMPACT OF MICROORGANISMS ON LIFE

Microorganisms Tiny organisms that can only be seen

clearly under a microscope.

A cluster of Escherichia coli

bacteria magnified 10,000 times
 Can be harmless and useful OR harmful
( diseases in plants and animals)

Can be divided into:

1.Viruses 4.Protozoa
2.Bacteria 5.Fungi
3.Algae

Pathogenic bacteria - Tuberculosis

Protozoan parasite - Malaria
 BACTERIA
Majority of bacteria have sizes from 0.5m to 5.0m

Unicellular.

Have cell wall, plasma membrane and DNA (nucleoid

region) not enclosed in membrane.

Cell
walls are made of peptidoglycan ( Made up of protein
and a complex polysaccharide)
 Form spores under unfavourable conditions.

Are either spherical (coccus), rod-like (bacillus),

spiral (spirillum) or comma-shaped (vibrio).

Certain bacteria have a slimy capsule for extra

protection.

Examples: Lactobacillus sp. and Staphylococcus

sp.
Lactobacillus sp.
Staphylococcus sp.
ALGAE
Photosynthetic, plant-like organisms.

Very simple organisms, contain chlorophyll

(undergo photosynthesis)

Have cell walls made of cellulose.

No leaves, stems or roots.

Examples: Phytoplankton and

Spirogyra sp.
Phytoplankton Spirogyra

PYRENOID

FUNGI
Microscopic fungi are heterotrophic ( have no chlorophyll,
stems, roots or leaves)

Cell walls are made of chitin.

Feeding Habits

Examples: Yeast and Mucor sp.

 Mucor
Yeast
PROTOZOA
Unicellular

Live in aquatic environment.

Have nucleus, cytoplasm and plasma membrane.

Can carry out life processes eg. Respiration, reproduction

and excretion.

Move by using flagella, cilia or microtubules.

Examples: Euglena sp. , Paramecium sp. and

Trypanosoma sp.
extensible pseudopodia
VIRUSES
Smallest microorganisms and can only be seen under light
microscopes

Non-living cells because they cannot survive or reproduce on its own

outside its hosts.

Infectious. They must infect living cells to reproduce.

Utilises the cellular machinery of its host to make copies of itself.

Has two basic parts:

Inner core (composed of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA)
Outer capsid of protein sub-units
 Can be purified and crystallised.

Examples: T4 bacteriophage and tobacco mosaic virus

Bacteriophages parasitic on bacteria

Tobacco mosaic virus causes tobacco mosaic disease

 Purified : DNA can be extracted through
centrifugation
Crystallized : cannot move because of the protein
coat.
 Tobacco Mosaic
Bacteriophage Virus

Just some random virus

ABIOTIC COMPONENTS AFFECTING
MICROORGANISMS
Activity of microorganisms is affected
by abiotic components such as:
Concentration of nutrients and
water
pH value
Temperature
Light intensity
NUTRIENTS AND WATER

Allmicroorganisms need nutrients

and water (except virus) for
reproduction and growth
Without nutrients or water,
microorganisms will either die or
form spores
PH VALUE

Each species of microorganisms has

an optimum pH
Optimum pH for bacteria: slightly
alkaline(pH around 7.4)
Optimum pH for mould, yeast and
protozoa: acidic condition (pH between
4.5 and 5.0)
TEMPERATURE
Low temperature: microorganisms
inactive
Optimum temperature: 35C to 40C

Beyond 60C: growth of

microorganisms inhibited
Temperature up to 121C:
microorganisms and spores destroyed
(sterilization)
LIGHT INTENSITY
Low light intensity (dark): the
preferred places for microorganisms
High intensity of sunlight/UV rays:
can kill microorganisms
However, algae and photosynthetic
bacteria need light to carry out
photosynthesis active under high
light intensity
EXPERIMENTS
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON
THE ACTIVITY OF YEAST
 VARIABLES & HYPOTHESIS
Manipulated variable: Temperature

Responding variable: Height of coloured

liquid in the manometer

Constant variables: pH, Volume of yeast

suspension, light intensity and time taken

Hypothesis: The activity of yeast is

optimum at a temperature of 35C
RESULTS
Boiling Temperature (C) Height of coloured liquid in
Tube the manometer (cm)
A 0 -0.4
B 20 2.6
C 30 4.0
D 40 4.1
E 50 2.5
 DISCUSSION
Yeastrespires Carbon dioxide is released
Pressure in the boiling tube Colour liquid
in the manometer rises
The activity of yeast increases until 35C
(optimum temperature). Activity of the yeast
begins to decline with the increase of
temperature beyond the optimum temperature.
Enzymes are denatured at 50C, activity of
yeast slows down
CONCLUSION
The activity of yeast is optimum at a temperature
of 35C. The hypothesis is accepted.
THE EFFECT OF PH ON THE
ACTIVITY OF YEAST
VARIABLES & HYPOTHESIS
Manipulated Variable: pH

Responding Variable: Height of the

coloured liquid in the manometer

Constant Variables: Volume of yeast

suspension, light intensity, temperature and
time taken

Hypothesis: The activity of yeast is optimum

in an acidic condition
RESULTS
Boiling pH Height of coloured liquid in the
Tube manometer (cm)
A 5 3.0
B 6 1.5
C 7 0.5
D 8 -0.5
E 9 -1.0
DISCUSSION

Activity
of yeast is higher in an
acidic medium

Activityof yeast is lower in an

alkaline medium
 CONCLUSION

The activity of yeast is optimum in an

acidic medium. The hypothesis is
accepted
THE EFFECT OF LIGHT
INTENSITY ON THE ACTIVITY OF
YEAST
VARIABLES & HYPOTHESIS
Manipulated Variable: light intensity

Responding Variable: Height of the

coloured liquid in the manometer

Constant Variables: Volume of yeast

suspension, pH, temperature and time taken

Hypothesis: The activity of yeast is higher

at a lower intensity of light.
RESULTS
Boilin Distance Light Height of coloured liquid in
g from the Intensity the manometer (cm)
Tube light (1/distance)
source
A 50 0.020 2.5
B 40 0.025 0.8
C 30 0.033 0.5
D 20 0.050 0.0
E 10 0.100 -1.0
DISCUSSION

The further the boiling tubes are from

the light source, the higher is the
height of the coloured liquid.
Activityof yeast is higher when the
intensity of light is lower.
Exposure to ultraviolet rays kill the
yeast.
 CONCLUSION

The activity of yeast is higher at a lower

intensity of light. The hypothesis is
accepted.
THE EFFECT OF NUTRIENTS ON
THE ACTIVITY OF YEAST
VARIABLES & HYPOTHESIS
Manipulated Variable: Concentration of
nutrients

Responding Variable: Height of the coloured

liquid in the manometer

Constant Variables: Volume of yeast

suspension, light intensity, temperature and pH

Hypothesis: The higher the concentration of

glucose solution, the higher the activity of yeast.
RESULTS
Boiling Concentratio Height of coloured liquid(cm)
Tube n of
glucose(%)
A 0.0 0.0
B 5.0 0.5
C 10.0 1.5
D 15.0 2.8
DISCUSSION

Activity
of yeast is higher when the
concentration of nutrients is high.

Theincrease in the activity of yeast

means more carbon dioxide is released
and this increases the height of the
coloured liquid in the manometer.
 CONCLUSION

Nutrients are needed by the yeast for

respiration. The carbon dioxide is
released and this increases the height of
the coloured liquid in the manometer.
 The role of useful
microorganisms in the
ecosystem
 DECOMPOSITION
Decomposers: Organisms that secrete digestive
enzyme to break down organic matter and animal
waste into simple molecules.
These molecules such as carbon dioxide , water and
ammonium compound can be used by autotrophs such
as green plants.
Saprophytic bacteria and fungi are the main

decomposers.
Without decomposers,the nutrients stored in the dead
bodies cannot be released to enrich the soil.
The alimentary canal of
termites
Termites feed mainly on wood
which contains cellulose.
They cannot produce enzyme

cellulase to digest cellulose.

Population of mutualistic

protozoa such as
Trichonympha present in
alimentary canal and secrete
cellulase.
Digestive system in human
Useful symbiotic bacteria are found in the human
colon.
The useful microorganisms sythesise vitamins
B12 and K.
 NITROGEN CYCLE
Atmospheric nitrogen cannot be absorbed
directly by plants. Plants can only use
nitrogen in the form of ammonium, nitrite or
nitrate ions.
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria such as Nostoc

sp,live freely in the soil, and Rhizobium

sp.,which live in the root nodules of
leguminous plants,can use atmospheric
nitrogen to make ammonium compunds(NH3
and NH4+)through a process called nitrogen
fixation.
Nitrates are absorbed by plant roots and

converted into plant proteins.

When
animals eat plants, the organic
nitrogen is transferred into the body of the
animals and become animal proteins.
Waste materials, dead plants and animals

are decomposed by decayig bacteria and

fungi into ammonium compunds.
Ammonium compounds are converted into

nitrites and nitrates by nitrifying bacteria

through a process call nitrification:
i.Ammonia is oxidesid into nitrates by
Nitrosomonas sp.
ii.Nitrites are oxidised into nitrates by
Nitrobacter sp.
 The cycle is balanced by a continuous return of
nitrogen to the atmosphere by denitrifying
bacteria through denitrification.These bacteria
break down nitrates into gaseous nitrogen and
oxygen.The oxygen is used by bacteria while the
nitrogen is returned to the atmosphere.