CE-342: TRANSPORTATION

ENGINEERING II

Block-1: Pavement Engineering

Module - 1: Materials Characterization

Dr. Inamullah Khan

Fall 2016 1
 Pavement History
Romans
Highway!
Via Appia 312 B.C.
87,000 km
 Pavement History
Romans
Via Appia 312 B.C.
 Pavement History

Sher Shah Suri

1440-1450

Grand Trunk Road

Kankar was used as Surface Course
 Pavement History
Telford
1780
 Pavement History
Macadam
1823
No stone larger than will enter a mans mouth
should go into a road
 Pavement History

Modern Pavements

Sheet Asphalt
1876
Sheet asphalt placed on a concrete base
(foundation)

Bitulithic Pavements
1901-1903 (Frederick J. Warren)
First step towards HMA
Pavement Layers-UK, PAK

Wearing Course
Bituminous Base Course

Road Base (Granular)

Subbase

Subgrade
Pavement Layers-USA

Surface Course
Binder Course

Base Course (Granular)

Subbase

Subgrade
 Overview of Pavement Infrastructure Life-Cycle

Pavement Pavement
Network- Pavement Pavement
Network- Constructio Preservation Pavemen
level Paveme Constructio Preservation
level Paveme n Pavemen
t
Programmin nt Constructio
n Rehabilitati
Programmin nt n on
t
Monitorin
g and Design
g and Design Preventive Monitorin
g
Planning
Planning Inspectio Maintenanc g
n/Supervi e
sion
Corrective
Maintenanc
e
LEGEND

Done in-house by agency (NHA/ Provincial C&W

personnel
Let out by agency (NHA) to contractors/ consultants
10
 Phases of Pavement Development
Life-cycle
Pavement Terminal Phases Needs Assessment,
Goals Identification etc.
(Removal, Failure, etc.)
Pavement
Maintenanc Pavement
Planning
e/Rehab

Tasks at each Phase

Description,
Analysis, Paveme
Optimization and nt
Evaluation of Design
Asset
Alternative Practices
Monitoring

Pavement
Construction 11

Asset Operations
 Pavement Design, Maint & Rehab
What Is DESIGN ?
Conceive/Develop Plans for Something to Serve a
Specific Function

What Is the FUNCTION of the Pavement?

Provide Smooth, Durable, and Safe Vehicle
Access between Two Points under All Climate
Conditions
Maintenance Restores present condition
Rehabilitation Improves present condition
12
 Pavement Design CONCERNS

Economy
Safety

Serviceability

Load-Carrying Capacity

Deterioration due to Traffic and Environment

Noise and Air Pollution

Disruption of Abutting Land

Aesthetics

13
 Pavement Performance Concerns
Repeated & Dynamic Loading
Different Load Magnitudes & Configurations:

Axle Load: Single, Tandem, and Tridem

Wheel: Single and Dual
Traffic Growth and Channelized Traffic
Continuous & Rapid Deterioration with Time

Change of Materials Properties &

Characteristics
Different Types of Failure:

Structural
Functional
14
 Philosophy of Pavements
Pavements are alive structures
They are subjected to moving traffic loads that are
repetitive in nature.
Each traffic load repetition causes a certain
amount of damage to the pavement structure that
gradually accumulates over time and eventually
leads to the pavement failure.
Thus, pavements are designed to perform for a
certain life span before reaching an unacceptable
degree of deterioration.
In other words, pavements are designed to fail.
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Hence, they have a certain design life.

 Pavement Terminologies
Pavement Performance
The assessment of how well the pavement serves the
user over time.
Pavement Behavior

The direct response of a pavement section to the whee

load.
Structural Capacity

The ability of a pavement section to carry the design

load without failure or excessive deformation.
Pavement Distress

Any condition that may adversely affect pavement

functions.
16
 Pavement Categories
Unsurfaced
Surfaced Pavements:

General design philosophy, place stronger/higher

quality material on top, where the loads are high;
protect underlying weak layers
Flexible, Rigid, Composite

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 Pavement Types
Flexible
Hot-Mix Asphalt
Surface Treatments
Rigid

Jointed Plain Concrete (JPCP)

Jointed Reinforced Concrete (JRCP)
Continuously Reinforced Concrete (CRCP)
Composite

HMA Overlaid PCCP

HMA on Cemented Bases
White Topping 18
Typical Flexible Pavement Types

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Conventional Flexible Pavement

20
Distribution of Wheel Load (Flexible)

21
 Rigid Pavement
PCC Is Much Stiffer Than HMA and Distributes
the Load over a Much Wider Area

22
 Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement
(JPCP)

Joint Spacing 15 30 feet

23
Jointed Reinforced Concrete
Pavement (JRCP)

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Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement (CRCP)

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Typical Rigid Pavement Details

15 30 ft 30 100 ft

26
300 700 ft
Portland Cement Concrete Pavements (PCCP)
Joints
To Prevent Premature Cracking due to
Temperature and Moisture Changes
Pavement Joint Types

Contraction (Transversal)
Expansion (Transversal)
Construction (Transversal)
Longitudinal

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 Pavement Design Concept / Principle
The tensile and compressive stresses induced in a
pavement by heavy wheel loads decrease with
increasing depth. This permits to use gradation of
materials, relatively strong and expensive materials
being used for the surfacing and less strong and
cheaper ones for base and sub-base.
The pavement as a whole limit the stresses in the sub-
grade to an acceptable level, and the upper layers must
in a similar manner protect the layers below.
Pavement design is the process of developing the most
economical combination of pavement layers (in relation
to both thickness and type of materials) to suit the soil
foundation and the traffic to be carried during the
design life in a given climate 28
 Functions of the Base and Subbase

Flexible Pavement:
Structural Support
Subsurface drainage & Prevent
Pumping
Rigid Pavement:

Needed for Heavy Traffic (Uniform

Support)
Improve Drainage & Prevent Pumpin
Reduce the Effect of Frost Action
Control Subgrade Shrinking and 29

Swelling
 TYPES OF SURFACE (New Constructions)

Rigid Flexible Composite

(Portland Cement Concrete, (Asphaltic Cement Concrete,
PCC) AC)

Jointed Continuous Asphaltic

AC-on- PCC-
Concrete ly- Concrete
PCC on-AC
Paveme reinforced Pavement
Concrete (ACP)
nt (JCP)
Pavement
(CRCP) Rare Very Rare

Jointed Jointed
Plain Reinforce
Concrete d Concrete
Pavement Pavement
(JPCP) (JRCP) Often touted as a perpetual
pavement (CALTRANS, ILDOT, etc.)

30
 TYPES OF SURFACE (Existing/Rehabilitated Pavements)

Rigid Flexible Overlays

(Portland Cement Concrete, (Asphaltic Cement Concrete, (overlaid several
PCC) AC) years/decades after
original construction)

Continuous Asphaltic
Jointed AC-on- Composi PCC-on-
ly- Concrete
Concrete Pavement AC te PCC
Paveme reinforced
(ACP)
nt (JCP) Concrete
Pavement
(CRCP)
Jointed Jointed AC-on-PCC PCC-on-AC
Plain Reinforce
(blacktoppin (whitetoppin
Concrete d Concrete
g) g)
Pavement Pavement
(JPCP) (JRCP)
Traditiona Rubblized Crack&Se
l at 31
 Surface Types
Flexible pavement (Asphaltic
concrete)

Rigid pavement
(Portland cement
concrete)
New Composite 32

Pavement
(new AC-over-new
New Flexible Pavement on Crushed-Stone 33

Aggregate Base
Reinforced Rigid pavement 34

(Portland cement concrete)

 Portland cement concrete (PCC)

Portland cement concrete (PCC) is a mixture of

aggregate, cementitious material, and water that forms
a rigid, paved surfacing
Portland cement concrete pavements (PCCP) have
very good performance characteristics with respect to
strength, durability, and ride quality.

35
Portland Cement Concrete (PCC)

Plain Rigid pavement

(Portland cement concrete) 36
Portland Cement Concrete (PCC)

37
Portland Cement Concrete (PCC)

38
 Portland Cement Concrete (PCC)

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 www.ci.champaign.il.us
40
Reinforced Rigid Pavement on unbound base
(Here, the concrete is cast on site)
 www.fhwa.dot.gov
Reinforced Rigid Pavement on unbound base with thin
drainage layer
41
(Here, the concrete is pre-cast elsewhere and laid on site)
Continuously-reinforced Rigid Pavement
42
Non-traditional materials for the subbase, base,
or surface layers

Onsite recycling of old pavement material

43
Non-traditional materials for the
subbase, base, or surface layers

http://www.highwaysmaintenance.com/Rcycling/srfchipcyc.jpg

Offsite recycling of old pavement material

44
Non-traditional materials for the subbase, base,
or surface layers

Steel slag
(a by-product from steel mills)
45
 Non-traditional materials for the subbase, base,
or surface layers

www.engineering.ualb www.targetrecycling.bc.c
erta.ca/.../tires1.jpg a/images/product_med/.

www.asphaltinstitute.org

Asphalt Rubber (old tires)

Approx. 1500 to 2000 old tires are used

for every lane-mile of 2-inch asphalt
rubber pavement 46
 Subgrade Characteristics and Properties
What is a Subgrade?
Lowest layer in the pavement or track structure having
the lowest quality
The success or failure of a pavement is more often
dependent upon the underlying subgrade
Subgrades can be composed of a wide range of
materials

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Pavement cracking caused Subgrade Preparation
by subgrade failure
 Subgrade Characteristics and Properties

Soil is not a uniform/ homogeneous material

Soil properties vary with location and depth
Consists of:
Natural fill (in-situ)
Compacted Fill
Soil formed from:
Disintegration of rock
Chemical and mechanical
weathering

48
 Soil Investigation
Preliminary investigation
This may include the identification of soil types from
topographical maps, geological maps, soil maps, aerial
photos and satellite images, ground water conditions
and examination of existing roads
The visual investigation coupled with small amount of
sampling and testing
Elements of investigation
Existing topography
Drainage pattern
Erosion and vegetation
49
 Soil Investigation
Detailed investigation - Field and lab investigation
1. Field investigation
. It includes geophysical exploration , test pits and
boring sampling of soil and rocks and ground water
conditions
. Two geophysical methods used for investigation are
the electric resistivity and seismic refraction method
Electric resistivity mainly depends on clay minerals ,
moisture content and type of concentration of
electrolytes in water.
Seismic refraction method mainly relies upon that
velocity of sound is different for different materials.50
 Soil Investigation
Detailed investigation
2. Lab investigation

Representative samples
The depth of test pit and boring should be at least
one meter below the purposed subgrade elevation
Where soft soil is encountered, go down to
denser strata
It is advisable to take a greater no of samples in
the field that can be tested in lab
51
 Soil Investigation
Lab Testing/ Terminologies in the Context of Pavement Engg
Particle size distribution important since many properties
such as internal friction, void content, wear resistant and
permeability etc can be ascertained. The PSD of a material can
be important in understanding its physical and chemical
properties. It affects the strength and load-bearing properties of
rocks and soils
Moisture content- for strengths and deformation characteristics
Specific gravity is used in the equations expressing the phase
relation of air, water and solids in a given volume of material
Plasticity use to estimate the engineering behavior of clayey
soils
Free swell
Used to verify swelling tendencies
Calculated as the increase of volume as a %age of initial
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volume
 Soil Investigation
Lab Testing (continued)
Density - Influence on bearing capacity and
potential for settlement
Compaction- standard and modified compaction
test
California bearing ratio, CBR
Dynamic cone penetrometer test, DPC
Consolidation test Employed to estimate the
settlement of soil under embankment or other
structures
Tri-axial compression test is used to examine the
structural strength of soil as foundation of structure
53

or in detail studies of slope stability problems

 Subgrade Characteristics and Properties

Soil Characteristics:
1. Grain Size:
The most important!.. Behavior varies greatly when
comparing coarse (gravels and sands) to fine-grained
(silts and clays) soils
2. Shape and Texture:
Coarse grained - gravel and sand: rounded and
angular
Fine grained - silts: rounded and plate shaped
Fine grained - clays: plates and elongated crystals
54
 Subgrade Characteristics and Properties

Clays
Silts

Top Sizes

Various Soil Particle Shapes:

55
Subgrade Characteristics and
Properties
Soil Physical Properties:
1. Permeability - Ability of water to flow through soil
the best: high or low ?
2. Capillarity - Ability to draw water above water
table
the best: high or low ?
3. Compressibility - Ability to consolidate (compress)
under load the best: high or low ?
4. Elasticity - Ability of soil to "'rebound" when
unloaded
the best: high or low ?
5. Strength - Ability to withstand deformation and
movement under load 56

Very important!!! the best: high or low ?

 Analysis of Soil Properties: Gradation
Gradation
Grain Size Distribution established
by a set of sieves
1-1/2 in. Below 1/4 in.
1 in. No. 4 - 4.76 mm
3/4 in. Size of No. 10 - 2.00
1/2 in. the No. 20 - 0.84
3/8 in. opening No. 60 - 0.42
in No. 100 - 0.147
1/4 in.
the sieve No. 200 - 0.075
mm
Sieve analysis is performed according to weight of
sample retained on each sieve and converted to
percent passing each sieve
Gradation Curve - Graphical plot of sieve analysis,
57
typically semi-logarithmic
Analysis of Soil Properties:
Gradation

Gap
Graded
Uniform
ly Well
Graded Graded

58
 Analysis of Soil Properties (cont.)
Moisture and Fine Grained Soils
States of moisture (Atterberg limits: ASTM D4318
or AASHTO T-89/90)

59
Analysis of Soil Properties (cont.)
Shrinkage Limit (SL):
Water content where no further soil
volume change takes place upon drying
(Volume = 0)

Plastic Limit (PL)

Water content where 1/8" soil thread
begins to crumble by rolling
Liquid Limit (LL)
Water content where soil halves close
1/2 at 25 drops of Casagrandes cup
Plasticity Index (PI)
PI = LL PL
Very important soil property
A beach sand is non-plastic 60
 Soil Classification: AASHTO and
Unified
Classification is grouping of soils with similar
properties

Many classification methods, choice depends on

purpose (i.e., engineering)

1. AASHTO - primarily used for highway

construction/ engineering

2. Unified widely used in soil mechanics and

geotechnical engineering
61
 Soil Classification: AASHTO
Determine the AASHTO classification of the soil
with following properties
LL = 53%, PI = 22% , % Passing #200 = 71% and
% Passing #10 = 100%

Reference: Chapter 5, Para 5.3 Page 98, 99 & 100

Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 7th edition
by Braja M. Das

62
Characterization of Highway Subgrade Material

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Characterization of Highway Subgrade Material

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 Soil Classification: AASHTO
Example: LL = 53%, PI = 22% , % Passing #200 =
71% and % Passing #10 = 100%
(Notes: Final classification is the best possible
grouping, F = % Passing #200)
AASHTO: Since > 35% passes #200, LL > 40 and PI
> 11 then soil is A-7
For A-7-5 (see note on bottom of chart) PI = LL - 30;
22 < 23 ok
So, soil is A-7-5
Group Index: GI = (F-35) [0.2 + 0.005 (LL-40)] +
0.01 (F-15)(PI-10)
F = 71%, LL = 53, PI = 22 then, GI = 16.26, say 16.
The soil is A-7-5(16) 65
 Soil Compaction
Soil compaction increases soil density, strength (stability)
and reduces the amount of water that can be absorbed in
service (swelling, softening)

Dry Density (d) and Moisture Content (w) Relationship:

Dry of optimum - lubrication allows soil particles to move

66
together closer
Wet of optimum - too much water forces soil particles apart
 Proctor Compaction
Proctortest compaction Mold: Volume = 1/30 ft3; diameter = 4 in.
Standard Proctor (AASHTO T-99)
5.5-lb hammer Develope
d by
12-in. drop height R.R.
25 blows/lift Proctor
Modified Proctor (AASHTO T-180) in 1933
to
10-lb hammer determin
18-in. drop height e
25 blows/lift maximum
density
Higher Energy!.. (mass*g*drop height)
Procedure:
Prepare 4 to 5 soil samples by increasing w (%)
Compute dry density from wet density for the
known volume and plot ( vs. w) 67
 Soil Compaction - Proctor Tests

Relative Compaction (%) = Field / *100

Compaction effort achieved in field

Compaction specifications compare field densities to
proctor tests ( 95% of T-99 or 100% of T-100, etc.)
68
 Soil Compaction
When clays compacted at optimum moisture content and higher,
they absorb very little additional water (water absorption potential
is reduced)
As the soil dries it shrinks; as water content increases, it
swells. These changes in volume affect . When w increases,
strength decreases.

Determining Unit Weight in Field

Direct Methods - (1) Sand Cone, (2) Rubber Balloon
Dig hole, measure volume, weigh soil from hole, determine w,
compute
Indirect Methods - Nuclear Density Gage
Gamma source and detector, amount reflected back correlated to 69
 Density Measurement Devices

Rubber Sand Cone Nuclear Density

Balloon Gage

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 Highway Compaction Requirements
Control of Soil Compaction in Field
Table 18.7: Commonly Used Minimum Requirement for
Compaction of Embankments and Subgrades
AASHTO Class Maximum Relative Density
of Soil
Embankments Subgrade

Height Less Than 50 ft Height More Than 50 ft

A1, A3 95 95

A2-4, A2-5 95 95

A2-6, A2-7 > 95 95a 95

A4, A5. A6, A7 > 95 95a 95

a
Use of these materials require special attention to design and construct

71
Soil Engineering for Highway Design
 Field Density Example Problem: Sand Cone
A sand cone holds 851.0 g. The loose density of the sand is
1.430 g/cc.
Field test results:
Total weight of soil: 639.5 g
Dry Weight of soil: 547.9 g
Initial weight of the sand-cone apparatus: 4527.8 g
Final weight of the sand-cone apparatus: 3223.9 g
Determine the Field Dry Density and Water Content.
SOLUTION:
Mass of Sand Used:
Mass in Test Hole:
Volume of Test Hole:
Field Dry Density:
72
Field Water Content:
Field Density Example Problem: Balloon Densometer

Field test results:

Total weight of soil from test hole: 450.6 g
Dry Weight of soil: 404.9 g
Volume of Test Hole: 203.8 cm3
Determine the Field Dry Density and Water Content.
SOLUTION:
Field Dry Density:
Field Water Content:

73
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) - AASHTO T193, ASTM D1883
Early 1940's U.S. Army Corps of Engineers developed for
airfield design
Procedure:
Compact soil sample at opt. moisture using standard or modified
Proctor,
Soak for 4 days, and then perform the CBR test
Record loads to cause 0.1-in., 0.2-in. up to 0.5 in. penetrations
in the soil sample @ penetration rate of 1.25 mm/min.
Compare soils strength in punching shear to that of Standard
Crushed Stone, expressed as a %

(1) CBR (%) at 0.1-in. penetration = [Psoil (psi) / 1,000 psi] * 100
(2) CBR (%) at 0.2-in. penetration = [Psoil (psi) / 1,500 psi] * 100
74
If (2) is greater than (1), compute CBR using 0.2-in. penetration
results
Resilient (Elastic) Behavior Resilient
Modulus

MR = f(stress state and geomaterial properties)

Cohesive soils are stress softening, granular materials are
stress hardening 75
Subgrade Characteristics and Performance
Subgrade Characteristics:
1. Load bearing capacity
Subgrade must be able to support loads transmitted from the
pavement structure
This load bearing capacity is often affected by degree of
compaction, moisture content, and soil type
A subgrade that can support a high amount of loading
without excessive deformation is considered good

Contact Pressure
100 psi

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Bearing Capacity
10 psi
Subgrade Characteristics and Performance
Subgrade Characteristics:
1. Load bearing capacity
2. Moisture content
Moisture tends to affect a number of subgrade
properties including load bearing capacity, shrinkage
and swelling
Moisture content can be influenced by a number of
things such as drainage, groundwater table elevation,
infiltration, or pavement porosity (which can be
assisted by cracks in the pavement)
Generally, excessively wet subgrades will deform
excessively under load 77
Subgrade Characteristics and Performance
Subgrade Characteristics:
1. Load bearing capacity
2. Moisture content
3. Shrinkage and/or swelling
Some soils shrink or swell depending upon their
moisture content
Soils with excessive fines content may be
susceptible to frost heave in cold climates
Shrinkage, swelling and frost heave will tend to
deform and crack any pavement type constructed
over them
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 Subgrade Characteristics and Performance
Subgrade stability
refers to soil strength influences
pavement construction operations

Prevent excessive
rutting and shoving
during construction

refers to serviceability under

repeated loading

Subgrade stability
influences long-term
pavement performance 79
 Improve Subgrade Performance

What is meant by Subgrade/Soil Stabilization

Improving soils physical and engineering properties

through chemical and mechanical means

1. Increase strength
2. Reduce plasticity (PI)
3. Decrease volume change potential
4. Improve workability (Compactability)
5. Increase durability(long term effects)
80
 Stabilization Objectives
1. Increase strength/stiffness
2. Decrease soil response to environmental changes
(improve durability), Moisture, temperature &
freeze/thaw
3. Construction expediency,
Economics (cost reduction)
increase density of engineered pavement layers
4. Subgrade modification
Reduction of PI, control volume changes and
moisture susceptibility, etc.

81
 Stabilization Objectives

5. Conserve aggregate materials (lack of quality

materials)
6. Conserve energy
7. Provide a temporary or permanent wearing surface
8. Reduce pavement thickness requirements

82
 Subgrade Stability Solutions
Considers stabilization for all subgrade soils with CBR < 6

1. Increase aggregate cover thickness

2. Excavate clay, replace with select materials
3. Chemically Modify/Stabilize with admixtures
Lime Best: Minimize sinkage
Fly ash to less than 13-mm
(0.5-in.)!
Portland cement
Bituminous materials

4. Mechanically stabilize
Geosynthetics and coarse aggregate
Geogrids or high strength geotextiles 83
 Improve Subgrade Performance
Poor subgrade should be avoided if possible, but when
it is necessary to build over weak soils there are
several methods available to improve subgrade
performance:

1. Removal and replacement (over-excavation).

Poor subgrade soil can simply be removed and
replaced with high quality fill. Although this is
simple in concept, it can be expensive. Table 1
shows typical over-excavation depths
recommended by the Colorado Asphalt
Pavement Association (CAPA) 84
Improve Subgrade Performance
Table 1: Over-Excavation Recommendations
(from CAPA, 2000)
Depth of Over-Excavation
Subgrade Plasticity
Below Normal Subgrade
Index
Elevation

10 - 20 0.7 meters (2 ft.)

20 - 30 1.0 meter (3 ft.)
30 - 40 1.3 meters (4 ft.)
40 - 50 1.7 meters (5 ft.)

More than 50 2.0 meters (6 ft.)

85
 Improve Subgrade Performance
2. Stabilization with a Cementitious or asphaltic binder.
. The addition of an appropriate binder (such as lime,
Portland cement or emulsified asphalt) can increase
subgrade stiffness and/or reduce swelling tendencies.
Table 2: Some Stabilization Recommendations (from
CAPA, 2000)
Stabilization Conditions Under which it is
Material Recommended
Subgrades where expansion potential
Lime combined with a lack of stability is a
problem.
Subgrades which exhibit a plasticity
Portland Cement
index of 10 or less.
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Subgrades are sandy and do not have
Asphalt Emulsion an excessive amount of material finer
 Improve Subgrade Performance
3. Additional base layers.
. Marginally poor subgrade soils may be
compensated for by using additional base layers.
. These layers (usually of crushed stone either
stabilized or unstabilized) serve to spread
pavement loads over a larger subgrade area.
. This option is rather perilous; when designing
pavements for poor subgrades the temptation may
be to just design a thicker section with more base
material because the thicker section will satisfy
most design equations.
87
 Improve Subgrade Performance
3. Additional base layers.
. However, these equations are at least in part
empirical and were usually not intended to be
used in extreme cases. In short, a thick pavement
structure over a poor subgrade will not
necessarily make a good pavement
Granular materials
sufficiently strong to resist
rutting
Thick enough to distribute
high tire pressures
Insensitive to moisture
88
 Improve Subgrade Performance
IL DOT Granular Backfill Cover Requirements

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Granular Bases and Subbases (Ballast and Sub-ballast)
Purposes:
Drainage - open graded ballast
Load Distribution - flexible pavements
Stability - greater angularity, greater stability
Raise pavement or track structure (over the subgrade)

Moisture
o Pavements are susceptible to water
o Sources of Water:
(1) Joints and cracks (rigid and flexible pavements)
(2) Shoulders and ditches
(3) Surface permeability (AC & PCC)
(4) Upward movement of ground water table (or capillary
action)
(5) Seepage from high ground 90

(6) Vapor movements

 Base & SubBase Stabilization
Types of stabilized Bases:

Cement Treated Base, CTB (aggregate plus small amount

of Portland Cement forming a rigid layer, often approaching
stiffness and strength of PCC. Shrinkage cracks in this layer
sometimes causes reflective cracking).

Asphalt Treated Base, ATB (aggregate plus small amount

of asphalt binder. Usually an emulsified asphalt is used,
sometimes foamed asphalt. Forms a cohesive or semi-
cohesive layer, improved modulus, strength, and moisture
resistance)

91
 Suitable Materials for Cement Stabilization
Minimum of 55% passing #4 sieve
PI < 30
Less than 1% sulfate
Non-reactive aggregates

7 day ASTM D1633 -Compressive Strength Test

requirements range from 250 to 750 psi (350 to
450 psi generally recommended)

o Type I cement is normally used

o Type III cement is used for early strength
o It has been successfully used in recycling old
pavements 92
 Mechanically Stabilized Surfaces
Cellular Confinement
Cellular confinement systems,
sometimes referred to as geocells, are
constructed with a geosynthetic
product that forms a honeycomb-like
cellular structure that is infilled with
aggregate to create a stabilized
aggregate layer
Some aggregate cover is required to
protect the geocells from traffic
abrasion

93
 Mechanically Stabilized Surfaces
Fiber Reinforcement
Materials that have been
used for fiber reinforcement
include metallic,
polypropylene, glass, wire,
straw, and hemp fibers.

The fibers are mixed with the

soil to create a uniformly
reinforced soil mix with
discrete, randomly oriented
fibers. The soil is then placed
and compacted.
94
 Mechanically Stabilized Surfaces
Geo-grid Reinforcement
Geotextiles and geogrids belong to a group of synthetic products
collectively referred to as geosynthetics. Geosynthetic products
can be used to reinforce soils and to act as filter or separation
layers in pavement construction.

95
Aggregates: Definitions and Functional
Requirements
Granular material that comprises the largest
quantity of material used in most pavement and
railroad track structures

Coarse Aggregate > No. 4 Sieve (4.76 mm)

Fine Aggregate < No. 4 Sieve
Mineral Filler < No. 200 Sieve (0.075 mm)

Functional Requirements:
Strength
Distribute Load, Reduce Stresses in
Underlying layers via thickness and modulus
Aid Drainage
Reduce Damage from Frost (Increase depth to 96

Subgrade), Filler
 Aggregates: Definitions and Functional
Requirements
Functional Requirements:
When aggregates are used as an ingredient in
asphalt and PCC, additional functional
requirements and tests are needed:
skid/polish resistance, angularity
requirements, freeze/thaw durability, etc.
Description of the Best Aggregate for
Transportation Uses:
CRUSHED
ANGULAR
ROUGH, TEXTURED SURFACE

Crushed stone is generally a high-quality 97

aggregate for pavements

ggregate Gradation and Size
The particle size distribution, or gradation, of an
aggregate is one of the most influential aggregate
characteristics in determining how it will perform as a
pavement material.

Maximum Aggregate Size. The smallest sieve

through which 100 percent of the aggregate
sample particles pass. Superpave defines the
maximum aggregate size as one sieve larger
than the nominal maximum size

Nominal Maximum Aggregate Size (NMAS). The

largest sieve that retains some of the aggregate
particles but generally not more than 10 percent by 98

weight. Superpave defines nominal maximum

aggregate size as one sieve size larger than the
Aggregate Properties

Property Aggregate with no Aggregate with Aggregate with

Fines sufficient Fines for great amount of
Max Density Fines
Shear Strength High Very High Very Low
Density Low-Med High High
Permeability High Very Low Very High
Frost Susceptibility Very Low High Very High
Suitability as a Base Excellent Poor Very Poor
Material

99
 Wearing Course
The surface course is the layer in contact with
traffic loads and normally contains the highest
quality materials.

It provides characteristics such as friction,

smoothness, noise control, rut and shoving
resistance and drainage.

It serves to prevent the entrance of excessive

quantities of surface water into the underlying
base, subbase and subgrade.
This top structural layer is sometimes
subdivided into two layers: 100

Wearing Course.
Intermediate/Binder Course.
Wearing Course - Gradation
HMA mix types differ from each other mainly in
maximum aggregate size, aggregate gradation
and asphalt binder content/type

In HMA, gradation helps determine almost every

important property including stiffness, stability,
durability, permeability, workability,
fatigue resistance, frictional resistance and
resistance to moisture damage (Roberts et al., 1996)

In PCC, gradation helps determine durability,

porosity, workability, cement and water
requirements, strength, and shrinkage. 101
Wearing Course - Types
Dense Graded HMA Gap Graded HMA
All sized particles Particle to Particle Contact
Air voids 4% Very Few Mid sized particles
Air voids 4%

Open Graded HMA

Very Few Fine particles 102

Air voids 15 20 %
Bituminous Materials
Asphalts -Natural or fractional distillation of
petroleum
Tars Destructive distillation of bituminous
coal, wood having distinct odor (high temp
susceptibility, health hazards)
Pitches -Fractional distillation of tar

Barrel of
Crude Oil

103
Production of Asphalt Concrete
Mixing & placing at low viscosity
hot asphalt cement
liquid asphalts
o cutback asphalts
o emulsified asphalts
Cannot cast -use compaction, Three stage
process (vibratory, pneumatic, steel)

TN-II-2015 104
Petroleum-Based Asphalt Binders

Asphalt binder is waste product from refinery processing of crude oil

Gasoline
o Sometimes called the bottom of the barrel Kerosene

Properties depend on: Lt. Gas Oil

o Refinery operations Diesel
Motor Oils
o Composition crude source-dependent
Asphalt
Need to specify desirable characteristics
Desirable characteristics have evolved over time and with increasing
technological advances

Purchasing requires specifications

10
5
 Asphalt Binders
Background
History of
Specifications
1. Penetration Grading System
2. Viscosity Grading System
3. Aged-Residue Viscosity Grading
System
4. Superpave Grading System
10
6
 Early Specifications

Lake Asphalts
Appearance
Solubility in carbon disulfide
Petroleum asphalt binders (early 1900s)
Consistency
Chewing
Penetration machine

10
7
 Penetration Testing

Sewing machine needle

Specified load (100 g), temperature (25 oC),
time(5 seconds)

100 g Penetration in 0.1 mm

No. 2 sewing
machine needle

Initial After 5 seconds 108

 Penetration Grade Specification
Uses penetration
Pen Five Grades
40 - 50 results to specify grade
Adds
60 - 70
Flash point test
85 - 100
Ductility
120 - 150
Solubility
200 - 300
Thin film oven aging
Penetration
Ductility
10
9
 Viscosity Graded Specifications
Testing
Absolute viscosity
U-shaped tube with
timing marks & filled
with asphalt binder
Placed in 60oC bath
Vacuum used to pull
asphalt through tube
Time to pass marks x
tube calibration
constant = Viscosity in
Pa s (Poise) 11
0
 Viscosity Graded Specifications - Testing
Kinematic viscosity
Cross arm tube with timing marks &
filled with asphalt
Placed in 135oC bath and left for
about 20 minutes
Once started gravity moves asphalt
through tube
Time to pass marks x tube calibration
constant = Viscosity in centistokes
Centistokes are converted to
centipoise by mulitplying centistokes
by the specific gravity of the asphalt
binder.
11
1
 Mixing/Compaction Temps
xing temperature corresponds to a viscosity of 0.17 + 0.02
he temperature at which the viscosity is 0.28 + 0.03 is used
ct the compaction temperature.
Viscosity, Pa s
10
5

1
.5
.3 Compaction Range
.2 Mixing Range

.1
100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
11
2
Temperature, C
Comparison of Pen, Viscosity & AR
Penetration Grades

AC 40 AR
Viscosity, 60C (140oF)

40 16000
100 50 AC 20
AR 8000
60
50 AC 10
70 AR 4000
85
100 AC 5
AR
120 2000
150 AC 2.5
200 AR
10
300 1000
5
11
3
 Ductility
Evaluates the ability of an asphalt binder
sample to stretch at a rate of 5 cm/min at
25oC
Centimeter
Scale

Mold

Asphalt
Sample
11
4
 Typical Penetration Specifications

Penetration 40 50 200
- 300
Flash Point, F 450+ 350+
Ductility, cm 100+ 100+
Solubility, % 99.0+ 99.0+

Retained Pen., % 55+ 37+

Ductility, cm NA 100+
11
*Table Provided as Handout 5
 Advantages

Grades asphalt binders near average in-

service temp.
Fast testing
Can be used in field labs
Low capital costs
Precision well established
Temperature susceptibility can be
determined

11
6
 Disadvantages

Empirical test
Shear rate
High
Variable
Mixing and compaction temp. information
not available
Similar penetrations at 25oC (77oF) do not
reflect wide differences in asphalts

11
7
 Flash Point (Safety)

Thermometer

Cup filled with

asphalt binder

Wand attached
to gas line

11
8
 Solubility (Purity)
Asphalt binder is
dissolved in a solvent
either carbon-
disulfide or
Trichloroethylene
then filtered through a
vacuum flask.

The amount of
insoluble material
retained on the filter
represents the
impurities in the
asphalt binder. 11
9
 Outside of Oven
Thin Film Oven (durability)
TFO simulating the
change in asphalt binder
properties which occur
during tank storage,
mixing and construction
processes.
Pan Thermometer
Three containers with 50
g Asphalt in each.
Rotated/kept in oven at
163 oC oven for 5 hours.
Rotating Shelf
12
0
Superpave Asphalt Binder
Specifications

121
 Superpave Asphalt Binder Specification

The grading system is based on Climate

PG 64 - 22

Min pavement
Performance temperature
Grade
Average 7-day max
pavement temperature
The PG Binder designation is based on expected extremes of hot and cold
pavement temperatures. 122
Tests Used in Superpave PG Specifications

Construction

Fatigue Thermal
Rutting Cracking Cracking

RV DSR BBR
+ve Temp -ve
PAV
No Aging Long Term Aging
RTFO (Short Term
Aging) 123
Tests Used in Superpave PG Specifications

Dynamic shear Rheometer (DSR) is used to

characterize the viscous and elastic behavior of
asphalt binders at medium to high temperatures.

Bending Beam Rheometer (BBR) test provides a

measure of low temperature stiffness and
relaxation properties of asphalt binders which gives
an indication of an asphalt binders ability to resist
low temperature cracking. To account for test
results from a shorter loading time to estimate the
test results at a longer loading time, BBR test is
conducted at a temperature 10C higher than the low
temperature specification. Thus, for a PG 76-16
asphalt binder, the test temperature of -6C (10C
higher than -16C). 124
 Permanent Deformation

Addressed by high temp

stiffness
G*/sin on unaged asphalt binder > 1.00 kPa
G*/sin on RTFO aged asphalt binder > 2.20 kPa

Heavy Trucks
> Early part of
pavement
service life
125
 Fatigue Cracking

Addressed by intermediate
temperature stiffness
G*sin on RTFO & PAV aged asphalt binder < 5000
kPa

> Later part of

pavement service life
126