Educational Research:

The Case Study Methodology

EDU 8677
Educational Research
Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, Ph.D.
Qualitative research...

Commonly called interpretive

research
its methods rely heavily on thick
verbal descriptions of a particular
social context being studied
 Is useful for describing or answering
questions about particular, localized
occurrences or contexts and the perspectives
of a participant group toward events, beliefs,
or practices

a helpful process for exploring a

complex research area about which
little is known
 Illuminates the invisibility of everyday life

by making the familiar strange, more

examined, and better understood
Qualitative methods...
historical
research grounded theory
ethnography phenomenology
case study symbolic interaction
ethology action research
ethnomethodology
 case study
examines the characteristics of a
particular entity, phenomenon, or
person
Generally speaking, qualitative
researchers.
spend a great deal of time in the
settings being studied (fieldwork)
fieldwork
rely on themselves as the main
instrument of data collection
(subjectivity;
subjectivity intersubjectivity)
intersubjectivity
analyze data using interpretative lenses
employ expressive language and voice
in descriptions and explanations
seek depth of perspective through
ongoing analysis (i.e., waves of data)
judged in terms of believability,
trustworthiness, coherence, and the
logic underlying researchers
interpretations
The general characteristics of
qualitative research...

Data sources are real-world situations

Data are descriptive
Emphasizes a holistic approach
(processes and outcomes)
Data analysis is inductive
Describes the meaning(s) of research
finding(s) from the perspective of the
research participants
Uses inductive reasoning
reasoning
involves developing generalizations
from a limited number of specific
observations or experiences
highly dependent on the number and
representativeness of the specific
observations used to make the
generalization
 Issues in qualitative research...

a. gaining entry
b. contacting potential research
participants
c. selecting participants
d. enhancing validity and reducing
bias
e. leaving the field
a. gaining entry...

access is very much dependent upon

the researchers personal
characteristics and how others perceive
the
mayresearcher
require considerable negotiation
and compromise with a gatekeeper
trust is earned, not given
b. contacting participants...

gaining access
dealing with gatekeeper(s)
issues of building trust and
ensuring confidentiality and
anonymity
c. selecting participants...

the goal is to get the deepest

possible understanding of the
setting being studied
requires identifying participants
who can provide information about
the particular topic and setting
being studied
 is fraught with difficulties in
identifying and selecting an
appropriate number of participants
who can provide useful information
about the particular topic and setting
being studied
utilizes purposive sampling
 two general guidelines: the number of
participants is sufficient when
the extent to which the selected
participants represent the range of
potential participants in the setting
the point at which the data
gathered begins to be redundant
(data saturation)
saturation
The threats to validity in qualitative
studies...

observer bias
bias
invalid information resulting from the
perspective the researcher brings to
the study and imposes upon it
observer effects
effects
the impact of the observers
participation on the setting or the
participants being studied
d. strategies to enhance validity and
to reduce bias...

extend the time for observing the

setting
include more participants to make
the study more representative
focus upon building participant trust
in order to access more detailed and
honest data
 identify biases and preferences,
seek them out by asking others
work with another researcher and
compare field notes and impressions
from independent observations
after observations are completed,
offer participants an opportunity to
validate accuracy of the verbatims
 journalize ones own reflections,
concerns, and uncertainties during
the study and refer to them when
examining the data
carefully examine unusual or
contradictory results for
explanations (outliers)
outliers
 utilize a variety of data sources to
confirm one another to corroborate
participant information
(triangulation)
triangulation
e. leaving the field

The question is when and how to

exit
the bonds formed with study
participants complicate leaving
the setting
time constraints
when the amount of accessible
data is sufficient
The basic steps of qualitative
research...

1. Write a tentative research proposal

2. Intensive participation in a field
setting
3. Collect detailed data from field
activities
4. Synthesize and interpret the meanings
of the field data
5. Write the research report
1. The qualitative research proposal...

defines area of study

identifies setting or context of study
specifies the kinds of data to be
collected
describes methods to be used
provides the researchers
rationale for undertaking the study
identifies the studys potential
contribution(s)
2. Intensive participation in a field
setting...

participation: as a participant
(participant observer)
observer or
nonparticipant
approach to participation: overt or
covert
requires experiencing the situation
from the perspective of both an
observer and a participant
3. Collecting and analyzing data...

primary tools include observations

and interviews but can also include
personal and official documents,
photographs, recordings, drawings,
emails, and informal conversations
multiple data sources are normative
 the researcher records descriptive
as well as reflective notes about
what one has seen, heard,
experienced, and thought about a
during an observation session
 regarding
field notes
notes
put aside assumptions,
experience context first
see phenomena through
participants perspective
write up notes immediately
following an observation
detail is critical: include date,
site, time, and topic on every set
of field notes; leave wide
margins for writing impressions;
use only one side of a page of
paper; draw diagram of site (if
necessary)
list key words first, then outline
ones observations
keep the descriptive and reflective
sections separate
use memos to record hunches,
questions, and insights after each
observation
number the lines or paragraphs
for easy access
 regardinginterviews
interviews
the purpose is to explore and to
probe the interviewees responses
in order to gather in-depth data
the interviewer inquires into the
interviewees attitudes, interests,
feelings, concerns, and values as
these relate to the context being
studied
meaning is jointly constructed
between the interviewer and the
interviewee; meaning is not just a
construction on the part of the
interviewee
be alert for openings in responses
to probe more deeply, starting
with mundane questions and
gradually easing into more
sensitive and more complex
questions
interview data collection
techniques include taking notes
during the interview, writing notes
after the interview, or tape
recording and transcribing the
interview (the transcript is a
verbatim)
verbatim
Interview dos and donts...

Do listen more and talk less

Do follow up on what is not clear and
probe more deeply into what is
revealed
Dont use leading questions; do use
open-ended questions (probes)
probes
Dont interrupt; do wait
 Do keep interviewee(s) focused
Do ask for concrete details
Do tolerate silence and space between
interviewees responses; do allow the
interviewee time to think
Dont be judgmental about or react to
an interviewees opinions, views, or
beliefs
 Dont engage in debate with an
interviewee
Do record everything the interviewee
says and note impressions of
interviewees nonverbal behavior
4. Synthesis and interpretation of the
meanings of field data...

a formidable task because data are

thick and deep as well as voluminous
and unorganized (field notes)
notes
involves a systematic and iterative
process of searching, categorizing,
and integrating data (managing
data)
data
understanding emerges as data are
integrated
Analyzing field data

data pieces

data categories

data patterns
 four-step iterative process of data
management...

a. reading and memoing to become

familiar with data and to identify
main themes
b. examining data to develop detailed
descriptions of the setting,
participants, and activities
c. classifying the data, including
categorization, coding, and
grouping into thematic units
d. interpreting and synthesizing the
organized data into general
conclusions or understandings
 Involves
working with field notes
deconstructing data into pieces
reconstructing the data pieces
into categories
identifying patterns for
understanding, synthesis, and
interpretation
 Criteria suitable for qualitative data
analysis...

a. credibility or plausibility
b. transferability
c. including a methods section
 credibility
or plausibility
to demonstrate that the study was
conducted in such a manner as to
ensure that the subject was
accurately identified and
described
 transferability
to demonstrate that the results of
the study are generalizable to
others in the original research
context or to contexts beyond the
original study
 including a methods section
to provide an in-depth description
of the processes and methods
used in the study
 Strategies for analyzing qualitative
data...

a. constant comparison method

b. negative case and discrepant data
methods
c. analytic induction
 constant comparison method
compares new evidence to prior
evidence to identify similarities
and differences between
observations
 negative case and discrepant data
methods
the search for contradictory,
variant, or disconfirming data
within the body of data collected
that provides an alternative
perspective on an emerging
category or pattern
 analytic induction
a process concerned with
developing and testing a theory in
order to generalize a studys
findings
5. Writing the research report...
provide a setting where the data
were collected
identify characters who provide
information
describe the social action in which
the characters are engaged
offers an interpretation of what
the social action means to the
characters
 offers an interpretation of what the
social action means to the characters
follow all APA Publication Manual
guidelines