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Reactions and arrows
The reaction of sodium and chlorine is irreversible.

2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(s)

Irreversible reactions are represented by a single arrow: .

The reaction of nitrogen and hydrogen to form ammonia

is reversible.

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

Ammonia can also decompose to form nitrogen and

hydrogen. Reversible reactions that can reach equilibria
are represented by two half arrows: .

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What is equilibrium?
If a reversible reaction is carried out in a closed container
so that the reactants and products cannot escape, a state
of dynamic equilibrium can be established.

A + B C + D

This state is dynamic because both the forward and reverse

reactions are ongoing.
It is an equilibrium because:
the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are
the same
the net concentrations of the components of the reaction
mixture remain constant.

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Dynamic equilibrium
This graph illustrates the dynamic nature of equilibrium.
It shows that both the forward and back reactions are taking
place: they both have non-zero rate. When their rates are
equal, equilibrium is reached.

forward reaction:
2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)

rates are equal

rate

at equilibrium

reverse reaction:
2SO3(g) 2SO2(g) + O2(g)

time
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Composition of the reaction mixture
At equilibrium, the proportions of reactants and products
present may not be a 50:50 mix.

The proportion of reactants

and products depend on the
particular reaction, as well as
factors such as temperature,
concentration and pressure.

However, for a given set of

conditions, a particular
reaction will always have the
same proportions of reactants
and products at equilibrium.

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Dynamic equilibrium: summary

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What is Le Chateliers principle?
Le Chateliers principle states that:

If a factor affecting the

position of an equilibrium is
altered, the position of the
equilibrium shifts to oppose
the effect of the change.

Le Chateliers principle is used to

determine what effect a change will
have on a mixture at equilibrium.

However, it does not explain why

that change will occur, or what the
extent of the change will be.

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Temperature and equilibrium

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Temperature and equilibrium

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Concentration and equilibrium
If the concentration of one of the substances involved in a
dynamic equilibrium changes, the equilibrium will shift to
oppose that change.

A + B C + D

If the concentration of A is increased, the equilibrium will

shift to the right to reduce the amount of A. Increasing the
concentration of any substance causes the equilibrium to
shift to use up more of that substance.

If the concentration of A is reduced, the equilibrium will

shift to the left to increase the amount of A. Decreasing
the concentration of any substance causes the equilibrium
to shift to make more of that substance.

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Concentration and equilibrium

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Pressure and equilibrium

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Pressure and equilibrium

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Catalysts and equilibrium
A catalyst is a substance
that speeds up the rate without
catalyst

energy
of reaction by providing
an alternative reaction
pathway of lower energy. with catalyst

When added to a reversible time

reaction, a catalyst increases
the rate of both the forward and reverse reactions equally.
This has two results:
there is no change to the position of the equilibrium
equilibrium is reached faster.

The use of catalysts is particularly important in industry.

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Le Chateliers principle: summary

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Making ethanol from ethene
Traditionally, ethanol is made by
fermentation of biomass using yeast.
However, this process is not suitable
for meeting industrial ethanol needs
in countries like the UK.

Industrially, ethanol is manufactured

by hydration of ethene, which is a
product of cracking crude oil.

The forward reaction is exothermic

(H = -45 kJ mol-1) and is catalyzed
by phosphoric acid.

C2H4(g) + H2O(g) C2H5OH(g)

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Hydration of ethene: conditions

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Hydration of ethene: true or false?

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Formation of methanol
Methanol is an important chemical used in the manufacture
of other chemicals. Methanol is made industrially by the
reaction of carbon monoxide and hydrogen.

CO(g) + 2H2(g) CH3OH(g)

A mixture of copper, zinc oxide and aluminium oxide is

used as a catalyst.

The mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen is called

synthesis gas. It is made from methane and water by a
process called steam reforming.

CH4(g) + H2O(g) CO(g) + 3H2(g)

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Formation of methanol: conditions

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Carbon neutral activities in industry
Ethanol and methanol can be used as liquid fuels; for
example, for specially-adapted motor cars.

Methanol produced from carbon monoxide and hydrogen

can be a carbon neutral fuel.

A carbon neutral activity is one that has no net

annual carbon (greenhouse gas) emissions to the
atmosphere.

Greenhouse gas emissions are a major cause of global

warming. Aiming for carbon neutral status is one way in
which industries can try to reduce their impact on the
environment.

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Formation of methanol: true or false?

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Glossary

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Whats the keyword?

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Multiple-choice quiz

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