LANGUAGE SYSTEMS

Lexis

Grammar

Function

Phonology
What is lexis ?

Lexis is individual words or sets of

words, i.e. vocabulary items, that have
a specific meaning: tree, get up, first
of all.
What is grammar?

Grammar describes how we

combine, organize and change
words and parts of words to make
meaning. We use rules for this
description.
What is function ?

A function is a reason why we

communicate. Every time we speak
or write, we do so for a purpose or
function.
 Here are some examples of functions

* apologizing * greeting * clarifying

* advising * inviting * agreeing

* thanking * disagreeing * refusing

* interrupting * expressing obligation

* expressing preferences
 Function Context

Functions are a way of describing language use.

We can also describe language grammatically or
lexically (through vocabulary). When we describe
language through functions we emphasize the use
of the language and its meaning for the people
who are in the context where it is used.
What do you think an exponent is?

Context Exponent(in Function

speech marks)
A boy wants to go to The boy says to his Suggesting / making a
the cinema with this friend: Lets go to suggestion about going
friend tonight. the cinema tonight. to the cinema.
A girl meets some The girl says to the Introducing yourself.
people for the first group: Hello. My
time. She wants to get names Emillia.
to know them.
A customer doesnt The customer says to Asking for
understand what a shop the shop assistant: clarification (i.e.
assistant has just said. Sorry, what do you asking someone to
mean? explain something)
A girl writes a letter to The girl writes Thanking someone for
a relative thanking her Thank you so much a present
for a birthday present. for my lovely...
Exponent / Functions

One exponent can express several different

functions because its function depends on the
context.
Exponent: Im so tired.

Context Function
A boy talking to his mother Requesting to stop doing
while he does his homework homework.
A patient talking to her doctor Describing feelings
Exponent / Function

One function can also be expressed

through different exponents.
Coming for lunch?
Come for lunch with us?
Would you like to come to lunch with us?
Why dont you come for lunch with us?
Key Concepts and the Language Teaching Classroom

In language teaching, coursebooks are often

organized around functions.
The map of the book in a coursebook could
list functions and language like this:
Functions Language
Expressing likes First and third person present simple
affirmative: I like..., he/she likes...
Expressing dislikes First and third person simple present
negative: I dont like..., he/she doesnt
like...
Key Concepts and the Language Teaching Classroom

Functions are often taught in coursebooks together

with the grammar of their main exponents. There
is an example of this in the map of the book
shown previously. You can see that the language
in the second column includes present simple
affirmative, which is a grammatical term, while
I like. .., he/she likes... are exponents of
the function Expressing likes.
Key Concepts and the Language Teaching Classroom

Combining functions and grammar helps to give

grammar a meaning for learners and helps them
to learn functions with grammatical structures
that they can then use in other contexts.

A functional approach to teaching language helps

teachers to find real-world contexts in which to
present and practice grammar, and helps learners
to see the real-world uses of the grammar they
learn.
DISCOVERY ACTIVITIES

Look at the map of our coursebook.

Is it organized around functions?
What kind of activities are used in
the coursebook units to introduce
and practice functions?
LANGUAGE SKILLS

Speaking
Productive
Writing

Reading
Receptive
Listening
 SPEAKING

What do people often do when they speak?

1. Pronounce words

2. Answer questions

3. Use intonation
4. Ask for clarification and / or explanation
What do people often do when they speak?

5. Correct themselves
6. Take part in discussions

7. Change the content and / or style of their

speech according to how their listener
responds

8. Greet people
 What do people often do when they speak?

9. Plan what they say

10. Smile

11. Ask for and give information

12. Respond appropriately

13. Persuade
 What do people often do when they speak?

14. Start speaking when someone else stops

15. Tell stories
16. Use fully accurate grammar and vocabualry

17. Use tenses

18. Take part in conversations

What is fluency?

Fluency is speaking at a normal speed,

without hesitation, repetition or self-
correction, and with
smooth use of
connected speech.
What is accuracy?

Accuracy in speaking is the use of

the correct forms of grammar,
vocabulary and pronunciation.
Key Concepts and the Language Teaching Classroom

We can develop learners speaking skills by

focusing regularly on particular aspects of
speaking, e.g. fluency, pronunciation, gram-
matical accuracy, body language.
In many classes learners do controlled prac-
tice activities (activities in which they can use
only lnaguage that has just been taught).
Key Concepts and the Language Teaching Classroom

These are a very limited kind of speaking because

they just focus on accuracy in speaking and not
on communication, interaction or fluency. Con-
trolled practice activities can provide useful, if
limited, preparation for speaking.
Tasks and less controlled practice activities can
give more opportunity than controlled activities
for learners to practice communication, interac-
tion and fluency.
Key Concepts and the Language Teaching Classroom

Sometimes learners speak more willingly in class

when they have a reason for communicating, e.g.
to solve a problem or to give other classmates
some information they need.
Because speaking is such a complex skill, learners
may need a lot of help to prepare for speaking, e.g
practice of necessary vocabulary, time to organize
their ideas and what they want to say, practice in
pronouncing some words and expressions, practice
in carry out a task, before they speak freely.
Key Concepts and the Language Teaching Classroom

Learners, especially beginners and children, may

need time to take in and process all the new lan-
guage they hear before they produce it in speaking.

The activities in a speaking lesson often follow this

pattern:

1. Lead-in: an intorduction to the topic of the

lesson plus, sometimes, activities focusing on the
new language;
Key Concepts and the Language Teaching Classroom

2. Practice activities or tasks in which learners

have opportunities to use the new language;

3. Post-task activities: activities in which learners

discuss the topic freely and/or ask the teacher
questions about the language used.
 DISCOVERY ACTIVITIES

1. Look at a unit in your coursebook. Which

aspect(s) of speaking does it focus on
most?

2. Look at these websites to find speaking

activities your learners can do:
http://towerofenglish.com
 DISCOVERY ACTIVITIES

3. These books have lots of speaking

activities. Are there any you can use with
your classes?
WRITING

All written texts have two things in

common. Firstly, they are written to
communicate a particular message,
and secondly, they are written to
communicate to somebody.
 WRITING

* Our message and who we are

writing to influence what we write
and how we write.
* Writing involves several subskills.
Some of these are related to accuracy.
Writing accurately involves:
WRITING

1. spelling correctly;
2. writing legibly;
3. punctuating correctly;
4. using correct layouts;
5. choosing the right vocabulary;
6. using grammar correctly;
WRITING

7. joining sentences correctly;

8. Using paragraphs correctly.

Reminder:
Writing isnt just about accuracy. It is
about having a message and
communicating it succesfully to other
people.
The Writing Process

brainstorming (thinking of everything we can about

the topic)
making notes
planning (organizing our ideas)
writing a draft (a piece of writing that is not yet
finished, and may be changed)
editing (correcting and improving the text)
producing another draft
proof-reading (checking for mistakes in accuracy)
or editing again
Key Concepts and the Language Teaching Classroom

The subskills of writing that we teach will vary a

lot, depending on the age and needs of our learn-
ers.
When we teach writing we need to focus on both accu-
racy and on building up and communicating a message.

Sometimes in the classroom learners write by, for

example, completing gaps in sentences with the correct
word, taking notes for listening comprehension,writing
one-word answers to reading comprehension questions.
Key Concepts and the Language Teaching Classroom

These activities are very useful for teaching grammar,

and checking listening and reading, but they do not
teach the skills of writing. To teach the writing subskills
we need to focus on accuracy in writing, on communi-
cating a message and on the writing process.

By encouraging learners to use the writing process in the

classroom we help them to be creative
and to develop their message, i.e.
what they want to say.
 DISCOVERY ACTIVITIES

Look at one unit in your coursebook

and find the activities and exercises on
writing. Decide which subskill(s) of
writing they aim to develop.
READING

*We read different text types and we

*read for different

Our reasons reasons.influence
for reading
how we read, i.e. which reading
subskill (a skill that is part of a
main skill) we use.
Reading Subskills

reading for specific information or scanning

reading for gist or skimming
reading for detail

extensive reading

intensive reading
Key Concepts and the Language Teaching Classroom

Giving learners lots of opportunities for extensive

reading, in or out of class, helps them to develop
their fluency in reading.

Different reading comprehension tasks and exer-

cise focus on different reading subskills. Teach-
ers need to recognize which subskill a task focuses
on.
Key Concepts and the Language Teaching Classroom

Teachers need to choose comprehension tasks very

carefully. They need to be of an appropriate level
of difficulty and practice relevant reading skills.

The activities in a reading lesson often follow this

pattern:
1. Introductory activities: an introduction to the topic of
the text and activities focusing on the language of the
text
Key Concepts and the Language Teaching Classroom

2. Main activities: a series of comprehension activities

developing different reading subskills

3. Post-activities: activities which ask learners to talk

about how a topic in the text relates to their own
lives or give their opinions on parts of the text.
These activities also require learners to use some of
the language they have met in the text.
DISCOVERY ACTIVITIES

1. Look at one text in your coursebook. What text

type is it? What reading subskills do the
exercises and activities focus on? Is the text
interesting and at the right level for the learners?
2. Teach a reading lesson.
3. Observe the lesson of your classmates carefully
and comment about what was succesful/not
successful and why. Also comment on how you
would improve the lesson the next time.
LISTENING

We do not listen to everything in the

same way. How we listen depends on
our reason for listening.
What does listening involve doing?

dealing with the characteristics of spoken lan-

guage;
using the context and our knowledge of the
world;
understanding different text types;
understanding different speeds of speech and
accents;
using different listening subskills.
Key Concepts and the Language Teaching Classroom

When we listen to CDs we cant see the speakers

body language or the context he/she is speaking in.
And we cant ask the speaker to repeat or explain.
These factors make listening to recordings more
difficult than listening to live speakers.
Understanding and showing we have understood are
not the same thing. Maybe you can understand all of
a story,but you cant tell the story. So, comprehen-
sion activities should be in easier language than the
language in the listening text.
Key Concepts and the Language Teaching Classroom

We can develop learners listening skills by focus-

ing regularly on particular aspects of listening,e.g.
problem sounds, features of connected speech,
subskills, and, if necessary, on any new language.
The activities in a listening lesson often follow this
pattern:
1. Introductory activities;
2. Main activities;
3. Post-activities.